05 SignalEncodingTechniques
05 SignalEncodingTechniques
Communications
Chapter 5 – Signal Encoding
Techniques
Ninth Edition
by William Stallings
need to know:
Bipolar-AMI
0 = no line signal
1 = positive or negative level, alternating for successive ones
Digital
Pseudoternary
0 = positive or negative level, alternating for successive zeros
1 = no line signal
Signal
Manchester Encoding
0 = transition from high to low in middle of interval
1 = transition from low to high in middle of interval
Formats
Differential Manchester
Always a transition in middle of interval
0 = transition at beginning of interval
1 = no transition at beginning of interval
B8ZS
Same as bipolar AMI, except that any string of eight zeros is replaced by a string with two
code violations
HDB3
Same as bipolar AMI, except that any string of four zeros is replaced by a string with one
code violation
Encoding Schemes
signal spectrum
• good signal design clocking
• need to synchronize
should concentrate
transmitter and
the transmitted
receiver either with
power in the middle
an external clock or
of the transmission
sync mechanism
bandwidth signal interference and
noise immunity
error detection • certain codes
• responsibility of a
perform better in the
layer of logic above
presence of noise
the signaling level • cost and complexity
that is known as data • the higher the
link control
signaling rate the
greater the cost
Nonreturn to Zero-Level
(NRZ-L)
easiest way to transmit digital signals is to
use two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
voltage constant during bit interval
no transition (no return to zero voltage)
absence of voltage for 0, constant positive
voltage for 1
more often, a negative voltage represents one
value and a positive voltage represents the
other(NRZ-L)
Encoding Schemes
Non-return to Zero Inverted
(NRZI)
Non-return to zero, invert on ones
constant voltage pulse for duration of bit
data encoded as presence or absence of signal
transition at beginning of bit time
transition (low to high or high to low) denotes binary 1
no transition denotes binary 0
example of differential encoding
data represented by changes rather than levels
more reliable to detect a transition in the presence of
noise than to compare a value to a threshold
easy to lose sense of polarity
NRZ Pros & Cons
Pros used for magnetic
• easy to recording
engineer
• make
efficient use
of bandwidth not often used for
signal transmission
Cons
• presence of a
dc component
• lack of
synchronizatio
n capability
Multilevel Binary
Bipolar-AMI
use more than two signal levels
Bipolar-AMI
binary 0 represented by no line signal
binary 1 represented by positive or
negative pulse
binary 1 pulses alternate in polarity
no loss of sync if a long string of 1s occurs
no net dc component
lower bandwidth
easy error detection
Multilevel Binary
Pseudoternary
binary 1 represented by absence of line
signal
binary 0 represented by alternating
positive and negative pulses
no advantage or disadvantage over
bipolar-AMI and each is the basis of some
applications
Multilevel Binary Issues
synchronization with long runs of 0’s or 1’s
can insert additional bits that force transitions
scramble data
not as efficient as NRZ
each signal element only represents one bit
• receiver distinguishes between three levels: +A, -A, 0
a 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58 bits
requires approximately 3dB more signal power for
same probability of bit error
Theoretical Bit Error Rate
Manchester Encoding
transition in middle of each bit period
midbit transition serves as clock and data
low to high transition represents a 1
high to low transition represents a 0
used by IEEE 802.3
Differential Manchester
Encoding
midbit transition is only used for clocking
transition at start of bit period representing 0
no transition at start of bit period representing 1
this is a differential encoding scheme
used by IEEE 802.5
Biphase Pros and Cons
Pros
• synchronization on midbit transition
(self clocking)
• has no dc component
• has error detection
Cons
• at least one transition per bit time
and may have two
• maximum modulation rate is twice
NRZ
• requires more bandwidth
Spectral Density of Various
Signal Encoding Schemes
Stream of Binary Ones
at 1Mbps
Normalized Signal Transition Rate
of Various Digital Signal Encoding
Schemes
Minimum 101010. . . Maximum
NRZ-L 0 (all 0s or 1s) 1.0 1.0
NRZI 0 (all 0s) 0.5 1.0 (all 1s)
Bipolar-AMI 0 (all 0s) 1.0 1.0
Pseudoternary 0 (all 1s) 1.0 1.0
Manchester 1.0 (1010 . . .) 1.0 2.0 (all 0s or 1s)
Differential Manchester 1.0 (all 1s) 1.5 2.0 (all 0s)
Table 5.3
Scrambling
use scrambling to replace sequences that would
produce constant voltage
these filling sequences must:
produce enough transitions to sync
be recognized by receiver & replaced with original
be same length as original
design goals
have no dc component
have no long sequences of zero level line signal
have no reduction in data rate
give error detection capability
HDB3 Substitution Rules
Table 5.4
B8ZS and HDB3
Digital Data, Analog Signal
multilevel PSK gives significant improvements for MFSK and MPSK have tradeoff between bandwidth efficiency and error performance in
bandw prese
idth nce of
noise:
Bit Error Rates for Multilevel
FSK and PSK
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line
(ADSL) and some wireless
combination of ASK and PSK
logical extension of QPSK
send two different signals simultaneously on
same carrier frequency
use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
each carrier is ASK modulated
two independent signals over same medium
demodulate and combine for original binary output
QAM Modulator
QAM Variants
two level ASK
each of two streams in one of two states
four state system
essentially QPSK
four level ASK
combined stream in one of 16 states
have 64 and 256 state systems
improved data rate for given bandwidth
increased potential error rate
Analog Data, Digital Signal
digitization is conversion of analog data
into digital data which can then:
be transmitted using NRZ-L
be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L
be converted to analog signal
analog to digital conversion done using a
codec
pulse code modulation
delta modulation
Digitizing Analog Data
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
sampling theorem:
“If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a
rate higher than twice the highest signal
frequency, the samples contain all information
in original signal”
eg. 4000Hz voice data, requires 8000 sample
per second
strictly have analog samples
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
assign each a digital value
PCM Example
PCM Block Diagram
Non-Linear Coding
Typical Companding
Functions
Delta Modulation (DM)
analog input is approximated by a
staircase function
can move up or down one level () at each
sample interval
has binary behavior
function only moves up or down at each
sample interval
hence can encode each sample as single bit
1 for up or 0 for down
Delta Modulation Example
Delta Modulation Operation
PCM verses Delta Modulation
DM has simplicity compared to PCM but
has worse SNR
issue of bandwidth used
for good voice reproduction with PCM:
• want 128 levels (7 bit) & voice bandwidth 4khz
• need 8000 x 7 = 56kbps
data compression can improve on this
still growing demand for digital signals
use of repeaters, TDM, efficient switching
PCM preferred to DM for analog signals
Analog Data, Analog Signals
modulate carrier frequency with analog data
why modulate analog signals?
higher frequency can give more efficient transmission
permits frequency division multiplexing
types of modulation:
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
Analog
Modulation
Techniques
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation
Summary
Signal encoding techniques
digital data, digital signal
• NRZ, multilevel binary, biphase, modulation rate,
scrambling techniques
analog data, digital signal
• PCM, DM
digital data, analog signal
• ASK, FSK, BFSK, PSK
analog data, analog signal
• AM, FM, PM