Elements of Research
Elements of Research
Elements of Research
IC
Elements of Research
• The research Question • Result or Outcome
• Hypothesis • Internal Validity
• Randomization • External Validity
• Population • Variable
• Sample • Random Allocation
• Sampling • Informed consent
• Maneuver • Reproducibility
• Instrumentation • Risks
• Data gathering
The research question
• The main question that your study sought or is seeking to answer.
• A clear research question guides your research paper or thesis and
states exactky what you want to find out, giving your work a focus and
objective.
• The best research question should specify just one measurable result, as
well as all the conditions and important variables.
• Alternative Hypothesis:
• Generally this is defined as stating the null hypothesis (there are no
differences) is not true.
• If the objective of the trial is to compare a drug with placebo, the null
hypothesis will state that there is no difference between the two
groups, and the alternative hypothesis that there is a difference.
Hypothesis
• Daily apple consumption leads to fewer doctor’s visits.
• Daily exposure to the sun leads to increased levels of happiness.
Accessible population:
Refers to a Selected group of individuals or elements from target
population
Example
• Reasoning and IQ Level of PhD students in Caraga
• Accessible population
• Caraga State University, North Eastern Mindanao State University,
• Saint Paul University
Sample
• The people who meet the inclusion of the study and who actually are
incorporated into the study. A subset of the population.
• Once the population for a clinical trial has been defined, the
participants should ideally be selected randomly, that is, in such a way
that each potential participant of the population under study has the
same probabilities of being included in the sample.
Interval – variables which can not only be ordered but which also
permit the measurement of the distance between categories (for
example, height, weight, blood pressure, volume, etc)
Types of Variable
• Dichotomous – can only take two possible values
• Nominal – can take several values
• Ordinal - can take several values and in which a ranking between the
categories can be established.
• Quantitative – can take a numerical range of values.
• Censored – a quantitative variable which can take partial or
incomplete information (time until something occurs in Analysis of
survival).
Types of Variable
• Categorical variable - (discrete variable) – variable that can have
interruptions
• Being in a categorical level, there is a value among several potentially
observable values which can not be observed.
• Binary variable – variable or result which can only take one of two
possible values.
• Continuous variable –a variable is continuous if between two
observable values, there is always the possibility of there being
another observable value; it does not present interruptions (age,
height, weight, area)
Types of Variable
• Dependent variable – variable whose value depends on the effect of
another or other variables (independent variable)
• Manifestation or result, the value of which is explained of justified by
the influence of independent variables, especially by a regression model
• In statistics, the variable which can be predicted by means of a
regression equation.
• Independent variable – characteristic whose influence on a fact or a
manifestation is assumed (the dependent variable).
• In statistics, the independent variable is one of the elements of a
regression equation.
Types of Variable
• Intermediate variable (Contingency) – variable present in a causal
chain from an independent variable to another dependent one.
• It determines the dependent variable, but at the same time is the
object of modification by the independent variable and
simultaneously associates with both.
Random Allocation
• In a study in which two or more types of treatment are compared, it is
advisable for the groups formed to be similar in all the prognostic
characteristics except in the clinical course which is recorded can be
attributed to the different treatments administered (and only to
them).
This type of allocation is not optimum (it generally means that the
researcher knows which technique, A or B, corresponds to the next
patient ) and therefore can give rise to unequal groups and it is rarely
compatible with maintaining the double blind- character of a trial.
Cancelled allocation
• Process described in such a way that it gives reason to believe that
adequate measures were taken to conceal the allocation of patients
to each group from the people in charge of evaluating the patients
(for example, centralized random allocation, use of numbered,
opaque and sealed envelopes contained in a sealed bag, use of
numbered or encoded flasks and other recipients or other
descriptions with elements which ensures concealment).
Informed consent
• Formal procedure to apply the principle of autonomy
• It should include at least three elements: voluntariness, information,
and comprehension.
Voluntariness means that the subject can decide freely if they want
to participate in a study, without without there being persuasion
(that is, when they are induced to “freely accept” attitudes, values,
intentions or actions),manipulation real options, or their perception
of choice or coercion.
Informed consent
• The voluntary character of consent can be infringed when it is
requested by people in authority or who have great influence over
the subject of the research and when there is not “enough” time for
the subject to reflect, consult and decide.
Consistency
Reliability
Risks
• Absolute risk - Term used with different meanings depending on the
school of epidemiology, which should consequently be avoided.
• Attributable risk – Etiologic fraction.
• Proportion of all the cases of a disease which are attributable to a
certain risk factor.
• Proportion of exposed cases which is attributable to a certain risk
factor