Signaling over fading

channels

Prepared by: Osamah Nazar Al-saffar

M.Sc. Class/ Optical Communications
List of Content:
1. Introduction
2. Diversity
3. Space Diversity-on-Receive Systems
- Selection Combining
- Maximal-Ratio Combining
- Equal-Gain Combining
4. Space Diversity-on-Transmit Systems
- Al-Amouti Code
5. MIMO
6. Multiple Access Considerations
- Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
- Code-Division Multiple Access
- Gold Sequences
Introduction:
Fading refers to the fact that even though the distance separating a mobile receiver from the transmitter is
essentially constant, a relatively small movement of the receiver away from the transmitter could result in
a significant change in the received power. The physical phenomenon responsible for fading is multipath,
which means that the transmitted signal reaches the mobile receiver via multiple paths with varying spatio-
temporal characteristics, hence the challenging nature of the wireless channel for reliable
communication. As shown in below figure.
Diversity:
Diversity is a form of redundancy in a spatial context by which several replicas of the
information-bearing signal can be transmitted simultaneously over independently
fading channels, then there is a good likelihood that at least one of the received
signals will not be severely degraded by channel fading , we have three approaches to
diversity:

Frequency diversity, in which the information-bearing signal is transmitted using

several carriers.
Time diversity, in which the same information-bearing signal is transmitted in
different time slots.
Space diversity, in which multiple transmit or receive antennas, or both, are used
with the spacing between adjacent antennas being chosen to ensure the
independence of possible fading events occurring in the channel .
Space diversity

We have three different forms of space diversity:

• Receive diversity which involves the use of a single
transmit antenna and multiple receive antennas.
• Transmit diversity which involves the use of multiple
transmit antennas and a single receive antenna
• Diversity on both transmit and receive which combines
the use of multiple antennas at both the transmitter and
receiver.
“Space Diversity-on-Receive” Systems
Multiple receiving antennas are used with the spacing between adjacent antennas
being chosen so that their respective outputs are essentially independent of each
other . the requirement may be satisfied by spacing the adjacent receiving
antennas by as much as 10 to 20 radio wavelengths or less apart from each other.
We create a corresponding set of fading channels that are essentially
independent.

The issue then becomes that of combining the outputs of these statistically
independent fading channels in accordance with a criterion that will provide
improved receiver performance , We have three different forms of diversity-
combining systems and they all use of linear receiver :
• Selection Combining
• Maximal-Ratio Combining
• Equal-Gain Combining
Selection Combining
The simplest form of receive diversity. It operates on the principle that it is
possible to select, among Nr receive-diversity branches, a particular branch with
the largest output SNR; the branch so selected defines the desired received
signal.
Maximal-Ratio Combining
More powerful than the selection combiner by it exploits the full
information content of all the Nr receive-diversity branches about
the transmitted signal of interest; it is characterized by a set of
Nr receive-complex weighting factors that are chosen to
maximize the output SNR of the combiner.
Envelope of the linear combiner output is defined by :

Where the ak are complex weighting

parameters that characterize the linear
combiner. These parameters are changed
from instant to instant in accordance with
signal variations in the Nr diversity branches
over the short-term fading process. The
requirement is to design the linear
combiner to maximize the output SNR
of the combiner at each instant of time .
 Equal-Gain Combining

Simplified version of the maximal-ratio combiner (MRC) , Various

techniques are known to combine the signals from multiple diversity
branches. In Equal Gain Combining, each signal branch weighted with
the same factor, irrespective of the signal amplitude. However, co-
phasing of all signal is needed to avoid signal cancellation.

The average SNR improvement of EGC is typically about 1 dB worse than with MRC ,
but still much better than without diversity.
“Space Diversity-on-Transmit”
Systems
In the wireless communications literature, space diversity-on-receive
techniques are commonly referred to as orthogonal space–time block
codes.
presents the baseband diagram of a space–time block encoder, which
consists of two functional units: mapper and block encoder.
The mapper takes the incoming binary data stream {bk}, where bk =
+/-1, and generates a new sequence of blocks with each block made up
of multiple symbols that are complex. For example, the mapper may
be in the form of an M-ary PSK or M-ary QAM message constellation .
All the symbols in a particular column of the transmission matrix are
pulse-shaped .
Alamouti Code
Which is simple to design, yet powerful in
performance, in that it realizes a two-level
diversity gain: in other terms of
performance , It is equivalent to a linear
diversity-on-receive system with a single
antenna and two receive antennas

The signal transmitted over the multipath

wireless channel by two transmit antennas
and one signal receive antenna . Signal
transmission over the channel proceeds as
follows:

• At some arbitrary time, antenna 1

transmits and simultaneously antenna 2
transmits .
• At time t + T, where T is the symbol
duration, signal transmission is switched
to –s˜ 2 * transmitted by antenna 1 and
simultaneously is transmitted by antenna
2.
“Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output” Systems
The most powerful form of space diversity is the use of multiple
antennas at both the transmit and receive ends of the wireless
link. The resulting configuration is referred to as a MIMO
wireless communication system, which includes the receive
diversity and transmit diversity as special cases.
The novel feature of the MIMO system is that, in a rich scattering
environment, it can provide a high spectral efficiency, The signals
transmitted simultaneously by the transmit antennas arrive at the input
of each receive antenna in an uncorrelated manner due to the rich
scattering mechanism of the channel.

Most importantly, the spectral efficiency increases roughly linearly with

the number of transmit or receive antennas, whichever is the smaller one
of the two.
For a flat-fading Rayleigh distributing channel, we may use to denote the sampled
complex gain of the channel coupling transmit antenna k to receive antenna i at discrete
time n, where i = 1, 2, .. ,Nr and k = 1, 2, .., Nt . We may thus express the Nr -by-Nt
complex channel matrix as

Where it is understood that all four

vector/matrix terms of the equation, s, H, w,
and x, are in fact dependent on the discrete
time n. The below figure shows the basic
channel model .
By using a standard Gaussian random, the average SNR at each receiver input of the MIMO
channel is given by :

Which is, the sigma prescribed noise variance , fixed once the total transmit power P is
fixed.
Note also that, first, all the Nt transmitted signals occupy a common channel bandwidth
and, second, the average SNR is independent of Nr.

The idealized Gaussian model just described of a MIMO wireless communication system is
applicable to indoor local area networks and other wireless environments, where the
extent of user-terminal mobilities is limited.
 Multiple Access Considerations

An issue of paramount practical importance in wireless

communications is that of multiple access to the wireless channel,
in the context of which the following two approaches are the
dominant ones:

• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Access (OFDMA)

• Code-division multiple access (CDMA)
OFDMA and CDMA provide two different approaches for the multiple access of active
users to wireless channels, each one of which builds on its own distinctive features .
 Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing
Multiple access is accomplished through the assignment of
subchannels (subcarriers) to individual users.
OFDM is particularly well suited for high data-rate transmission
over delay-dispersive channels.
In its own way, OFDM solves the problem by following the
engineering paradigm of “divide and conquer.” Specifically, many
closely spaced orthogonal subcarriers (tones) is used to support
the transmission. Correspondingly, the incoming data stream is
divided into several low data-rate sub streams, one for each carrier,
with the subchannels so formed operating in parallel. For the
modulation process, a modulation scheme such as QPSK is used.
Code-Division Multiple Access
Modern wireless networks are commonly of a multiuser type, in that the
multiple communication links within the network are shared among multiple
users. Specifically, each individual user is permitted to share the available
radio resources ( time and frequency) with other users in the network and
do so in an independent manner.
In the context of time and frequency domains , The users of a common
wireless channel are permitted access to the channel through the
assignment of a spreading code to each individual user under the
umbrella of spread spectrum modulation.
CDMA operates in a manner entirely different from both FDMA and TDMA.
Graphically, we see that each CDMA user has full access to the entire
radio resources at every point in time from one frame to the next.
Nevertheless, for the full utilization of radio resources to be achievable,
it is necessary that the spreading codes assigned to all the K users form
an orthogonal set.

(a)FDMA , (b) TDMA , (c) CDMA

Gold Sequences
Gold sequences are well suited for applications in asynchronous
CDMA
time- and phase-shifts between individual user signals,
measured with respect to the base station in a cellular network,
occur in a random manner; hence the adoption of asynchrony.
Gold sequences constitute a special class of maximal-length
sequences, the generation of which is embodied in Gold’s theorem.
Thank You