Chapter 1

Introduction to
Statistics
§ 1.1
An Overview of
Statistics
 Data and Statistics
Data consists of information coming from
observations, counts, measurements, or responses.

Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,

analyzing, and interpreting data in order to make decisions.

A population is the collection of all outcomes,

responses, measurement, or counts that are of interest.

A sample is a subset of a population.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 3

 Populations & Samples
Example:
In a recent survey, 250 college students at Union College were asked if they smoked cigarettes regularly. 35 of the students said yes.
Identify the population and the sample.

Responses of all
students at Union
College (population)

Responses of
students in
survey (sample)

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 4

 Parameters & Statistics
A parameter is a numerical description of a
population characteristic.

A statistic is a numerical description of a

sample characteristic.

Parameter Population

Statistic Sample

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 5

 Parameters & Statistics
Example:
Decide whether the numerical value describes a population parameter or a sample statistic.

a.) A recent survey of a sample of 450

college students reported that the
average weekly income for students is
$325.
Because the average of $325 is based on
a sample, this is a sample statistic.
b.) The average weekly income for all
students is $405.
Because the average of $405 is based on
a population, this is a population
parameter.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 6
 Branches of Statistics
The study of statistics has two major branches:
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

Statistic
s

Descriptive Inferential
statistics statistics
Involves the Involves using
organization, a sample to
summarization, draw
and display of conclusions
data. about a
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 7
Descriptive and Inferential
Statistics
Example:
In a recent study, volunteers who had less than 6 hours of sleep were four times more likely to answer incorrectly on a science test than were participants
who had at least 8 hours of sleep. Decide which part is the descriptive statistic and what conclusion might be drawn using inferential statistics.

The statement “four times more likely to

answer incorrectly” is a descriptive
statistic. An inference drawn from the
sample is that all individuals sleeping
less than 6 hours are more likely to
answer science question incorrectly than
individuals who sleep at least 8 hours.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 8
§ 1.2
Data
Classification
 Types of Data
Data sets can consist of two types of data:
qualitative data and quantitative data.
Data

Qualitative Quantitativ
Data e Data
Consists of Consists of
attributes, numerical
labels, or measurements
nonnumerical or counts.
entries.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 10
Qualitative and Quantitative
Data
Example:
The grade point averages of five students are listed in the table. Which data are qualitative data and which are quantitative data?

Studen GPA
t
Sally 3.22
Bob 3.98
Cindy 2.75
Mark 2.24
Kathy 3.84
Qualitative Quantitative
data data
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 11
 Levels of Measurement
The level of measurement determines which statistical
calculations are meaningful. The four levels of measurement
are: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

Nominal
Levels Lowest
Ordinal to
of
Measurement Interval highes
t
Ratio

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 12

 Nominal Level of
Measurement
Data at the nominal level of measurement
are qualitative only.
Nominal
Levels Calculated using
of names, labels, or
Measurement qualities. No
mathematical
computations can be
Colors made
Names of at this level.
Textbooks
in the students in you are
US your class using this
flag semester
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 13
 Ordinal Level of
Measurement
Data at the ordinal level of measurement
are qualitative or quantitative.

Levels
of Ordinal
Measurement Arranged in order, but
differences between
data entries are not
meaningful.
Class Numbers on Top 50
standings: the back of songs
freshman, each player’s played on
sophomore, shirt the radio
junior, senior
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 14
 Interval Level of
Measurement
Data at the interval level of measurement are quantitative.
A zero entry simply represents a position on a scale; the entry
is not an inherent zero.

Levels
of
Measurement Interval
Arranged in order, the
differences between data
entries can be calculated.
Temperature Years on a Atlanta
s timeline Braves
World
Series
victories
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 15
Ratio Level of Measurement
Data at the ratio level of measurement are similar
to the interval level, but a zero entry is meaningful.

Levels A ratio of two data values

of can be formed so one data
Measurement value can be expressed as a
ratio.
Ratio

Ages Grade point Weights

averages

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 16

 Summary of Levels of
Measurement
Put Arrang Subtract Determine if
Level of
data in e data one data value
measurem in
data is a multiple
categor
ent order values of another
ies
Nominal Yes No No No
Ordinal Yes Yes No No
Interval Yes Yes Yes No
Ratio Yes Yes Yes Yes

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 17

§ 1.3
Experimental
Design
 Designing a Statistical
Study
GUIDELINES
1. Identify the variable(s) of interest (the
focus) and the population of the study.
2. Develop a detailed plan for collecting data.
If you use a sample, make sure the sample
is representative of the population.
3. Collect the data.
4. Describe the data.
5. Interpret the data and make decisions
about the population using inferential
statistics.
6. Identify any possible errors.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 19
Methods of Data Collection
In an observational study, a researcher observes and
measures characteristics of interest of part of a population.

In an experiment, a treatment is applied to part of a

population, and responses are observed.
A simulation is the use of a mathematical or physical
model to reproduce the conditions of a situation or
process.
A survey is an investigation of one or more
characteristics of a population.
A census is a measurement of an entire
population.
A sampling is a measurement of part of a
population.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 20
 Stratified Samples
A stratified sample has members from each
segment of a population. This ensures that each
segment from the population is represented.

Freshme Sophomor Juniors Seniors

n es

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 21

 Cluster Samples
A cluster sample has all members from randomly
selected segments of a population. This is used when
the population falls into naturally occurring subgroups.

All
members
in each
selected
group are
used.

The city of Clarksville divided into

city blocks.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 22
 Systematic Samples
A systematic sample is a sample in which each member
of the population is assigned a number. A starting
number is randomly selected and sample members are
selected at regular intervals.

Every fourth member is chosen.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 23

 Convenience Samples
A convenience sample consists only of
available members of the population.
Example:
You are doing a study to determine the number of
years of education each teacher at your college
has. Identify the sampling technique used if you
select the samples listed.
1.) You randomly select two different departments
and survey each teacher in those departments.

2.) You select only the teachers you currently have

this semester.
3.) You divide the teachers up according to their
department and then choose and survey someContinue
teachersLarson
in each department.
& Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 24
 Identifying the Sampling
Technique
Example continued:
You are doing a study to determine the number of
years of education each teacher at your college
has. Identify the sampling technique used if you
select the samples listed.
1.) This is a cluster sample because each
department is a naturally occurring subdivision.

2.) This is a convenience sample because you are

using the teachers that are readily available to
you.
3.) This is a stratified sample because the teachers
are divided by department and some from each
department are randomly selected.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 25
Chapter 2

Descriptive
Statistics
§ 2.1
Frequency
Distributions
and Their
Graphs
 Frequency Distributions
A frequency distribution is a table that shows
classes or intervals of data with a count of the
number in each class. The frequency f of a class is
the number of data points in the class.

Class Frequency,
f
Upper
Lower 1–4 4
Class 5–8 5 Frequencies
Limits 9 – 12 3
13 – 16 4
17 – 20 2

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 28

 Frequency Distributions
The class width is the distance between lower (or
upper) limits of consecutive classes.

Class Frequency,
f
5–1=4 1–4 4
9–5=4 5–8 5
13 – 9 = 9 – 12 3
17 – 13 =4 13 – 16 4
4 17 – 20
The class width 2is 4.

The range is the difference between the maximum

and minimum data entries.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 29
 Constructing a Frequency
Distribution
Guidelines
1. Decide on the number of classes to include. The number
of classes should be between 5 and 20; otherwise, it may
be difficult to detect any patterns.
2. Find the class width as follows. Determine the range of
the data, divide the range by the number of classes, and
round up to the next convenient number.
3. Find the class limits. You can use the minimum entry as
the lower limit of the first class. To find the remaining
lower limits, add the class width to the lower limit of the
preceding class. Then find the upper class limits.
4. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the row of the
appropriate class.
5. Count the tally marks to find the total frequency f for
each class.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 30
 Constructing a Frequency
Distribution
Example:
The following data represents the ages of 30 students in a statistics
class. Construct a frequency distribution that has five classes.

Ages of Students
18 20 21 27 29 20
19 30 32 19 34 19
24 29 18 37 38 22
30 39 32 44 33 46
54 49 18 51 21 21
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 31
 Constructing a Frequency
Distribution
Example continued:

1. The number of classes (5) is stated in the problem.

2. The minimum data entry is 18 and maximum entry

is 54, so the range is 36. Divide the range by the
number of classes to find the class width.

36 = 7.2 Round up to 8.
Class width
= 5

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 32
 Constructing a Frequency
Distribution
Example continued:
3. The minimum data entry of 18 may be used for the
lower limit of the first class. To find the lower class
limits of the remaining classes, add the width (8) to
each lower limit.
The lower class limits are 18, 26, 34, 42, and
50. upper class limits are 25, 33, 41, 49, and
The
57.
4. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the
appropriate class.

5. The number of tally marks for a class is the

frequency for that class.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 33
 Constructing a Frequency
Distribution
Example continued:
Number
Ages of
Ages of Students students
Class Tally Frequency, f
18 – 25 13
26 – 33 8
34 – 41 4
42 – 49 3
Check that
50 – 57 2 the sum
equals the
 f 30
number in
the sample.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 34
 Midpoint
The midpoint of a class is the sum of the lower and
upper limits of the class divided by two. The
midpoint is sometimes called the class mark.

Midpoint =(Lower class limit) + (Upper class

limit) 2

Class Frequency, f Midpoint

1–4 4 2.5

Midpoint 1  4  5 2.5
2 2
=
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 35
 Midpoint
Example:
Find the midpoints for the “Ages of Students” frequency
distribution.
Ages of Students
Class Frequency, f Midpoint
18 + 25 = 43
18 – 25 13 21.5
43  2 =
26 – 33 8 29.5 21.5
34 – 41 4 37.5
42 – 49 3 45.5
50 – 57 2 53.5
 f 30
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 36
 Relative Frequency
The relative frequency of a class is the portion or
percentage of the data that falls in that class. To find
the relative frequency of a class, divide the
frequency f by the sample size n.
Class frequency f
Relative frequency = 
Sample size n

Relative
Frequency
Class Frequenc
,f
y
0.222
1–4  f 418
f 4
  0.222
Relative frequency
n 18
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 37
 Relative Frequency
Example:
Find the relative frequencies for the “Ages of Students”
frequency distribution.

Relative Portion of
Class Frequency, f Frequency students
18 – 25 13 0.433 f 13

26 – 33 8 0.267 n 30
34 – 41 4 0.133 0.433
42 – 49 3 0.1
50 – 57 2 0.067
f
 f 30  1
n
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 38
 Cumulative Frequency
The cumulative frequency of a class is the sum of the
frequency for that class and all the previous classes.

Ages of Students
Cumulative
Class Frequency, f Frequency

18 – 25 13 13
26 – 33 +8 21
34 – 41 +4 25
42 – 49 +3 28
Total number
50 – 57 +2 30 of students
 f 30

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 39

 Frequency Histogram
A frequency histogram is a bar graph that
represents the frequency distribution of a data set.
1. The horizontal scale is quantitative and
measures the data values.
2. The vertical scale measures the frequencies of
the classes.
3. Consecutive bars must touch.
Class boundaries are the numbers that separate
the classes without forming gaps between them.
The horizontal scale of a histogram can be marked
with either the class boundaries or the midpoints.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 40
 Class Boundaries
Example:
Find the class boundaries for the “Ages of Students” frequency distribution.

Ages of Students
Class
Class Frequency, f Boundaries
The distance from 18 – 25 13 17.5  25.5
the upper limit of
the first class to 26 – 33 8 25.5  33.5
the lower limit of 34 – 41 4 33.5  41.5
the second class is
1. 42 – 49 3 41.5  49.5
Half this 50 – 57 2 49.5  57.5
distance is
0.5.
 f 30

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 41

 Frequency Histogram
Example:
Draw a frequency histogram for the “Ages of Students” frequency distribution. Use the class boundaries.

14 13 Ages of Students
12
10
8
8

f 6
4
4 3
2 2

0
17.5 25.5 33.5 41.5 49.5 57.5
Broken axis
Age (in years)
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 42
 Frequency Polygon
A frequency polygon is a line graph that emphasizes the continuous change in frequencies.

14
Ages of Students
12
10
8 Line is
extended to the
f 6 x-axis.
4
2
0
13.5 21.5 29.5 37.5 45.5 53.5 61.5
Broken axis
Age (in years) Midpoints

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 43

 Relative Frequency
Histogram
A relative frequency histogram has the same
shape and the same horizontal scale as the
corresponding frequency histogram.

0.5
0.433
Relative frequency

0.4 Ages of Students

(portion of
students)

0.3
0.267
0.2
0.133
0.1
0.1 0.067
0
17.5 25.5 33.5 41.5 49.5 57.5
Age (in years)
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 44
 Cumulative Frequency
Graph
A cumulative frequency graph or ogive, is a line
graph that displays the cumulative frequency of
each class at its upper class boundary.

30 Ages of Students
(portion of students)

24
Cumulative
frequency

18
The graph
ends at the
12 upper
boundary of
6 the last class.
0
17.5 25.5 33.5 41.5 49.5 57.5
Age (in years)
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 45
§ 2.2
More Graphs
and Displays
 Stem-and-Leaf Plot
In a stem-and-leaf plot, each number is separated
into a stem (usually the entry’s leftmost digits) and a
leaf (usually the rightmost digit). This is an example
of exploratory data analysis.
Example:
The following data represents the ages of 30
students in a statistics class. Display the data in a
stem-and-leaf plot.Ages of Students
18 20 21 27 29 20
19 30 32 19 34 19
24 29 18 37 38 22
30 39 32 44 33 46
54 49 18 51 21 21 Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 47
 Stem-and-Leaf Plot

Ages of Students
Key: 1|8 =
1 888999 18
2 0 0 1 1 1 2 4 7 9 9 Most of the values lie
3 002234789 between 20 and 39.

4 469
5 14
This graph allows us to
see the shape of the data
as well as the actual
values.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 48
 Stem-and-Leaf Plot
Example:
Construct a stem-and-leaf plot that has two lines for
each stem.
Ages of Students
1 Key: 1|8 =
1 888999 18
2 0011124
2 799
3 002234
3 789 From this graph, we can
4 4 conclude that more than
4 69 50% of the data lie
5 14 between 20 and 34.
5
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 49
 Dot Plot
In a dot plot, each data entry is plotted, using a
point, above a horizontal axis.

Example:
Use a dot plot to display the ages of the 30 students
in the statistics class.
Ages of Students
18 20 21 27 29 20
19 30 32 19 34 19
24 29 18 37 38 22
30 39 32 44 33 46
54 49 18 51 21 21
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 50
 Dot Plot

Ages of Students

1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5
5 8 1 4 7 0 3 6 9 2 5 8 1 4 7

From this graph, we can conclude that most of

the values lie between 18 and 32.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 51

 Pie Chart
A pie chart is a circle that is divided into sectors that
represent categories. The area of each sector is
proportional to the frequency of each category.
Accidental Deaths in the USA in 2002
Type Frequenc
y
Motor Vehicle 43,500
Falls 12,200
Poison 6,400
Drowning 4,600
Fire 4,200
(Source: US Dept. Ingestion of Food/Object 2,900
of Transportation) Continued.
Firearms 1,400
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 52
 Pie Chart
To create a pie chart for the data, find the relative
frequency (percent) of each category.

Relative
Frequen
Type Frequen
cy
cy
Motor Vehicle 43,500 0.578
Falls 12,200 0.162
Poison 6,400 0.085
Drowning 4,600 0.061
Fire 4,200 0.056
Ingestion of
2,900 0.039
Food/Object n = 75,200
Firearms 1,400 0.019 Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 53
 Pie Chart
Next, find the central angle. To find the central angle,
multiply the relative frequency by 360°.

Relative
Frequen
Type Frequen Angle
cy
cy
Motor Vehicle 43,500 0.578 208.2°
Falls 12,200 0.162 58.4°
Poison 6,400 0.085 30.6°
Drowning 4,600 0.061 22.0°
Fire 4,200 0.056 20.1°
Ingestion of
2,900 0.039 13.9°
Food/Object
Continued.
Firearms 1,400 0.019
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e
6.7°
54
 Pie Chart
Ingestion Firearms
3.9% 1.9%
Fire
5.6%
Drowning
6.1%

Poison
8.5% Motor
vehicles
Falls 57.8%
16.2%

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 55

 Pareto Chart
A Pareto chart is a vertical bar graph is which the height
of each bar represents the frequency. The bars are placed
in order of decreasing height, with the tallest bar to the left.

Accidental Deaths in the USA in 2002

Type Frequenc
y
Motor Vehicle 43,500
Falls 12,200
Poison 6,400
Drowning 4,600
Fire 4,200
(Source: US Dept. Ingestion of Food/Object 2,900
of Transportation) Continued.
Firearms 1,400
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 56
 Pareto Chart
Accidental Deaths
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
Poison

Motor Falls Poison Drowning Fire Firearms

Vehicle Ingestion of
s Food/Object

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 57

 Scatter Plot
When each entry in one data set corresponds to an
entry in another data set, the sets are called paired
data sets.
In a scatter plot, the ordered pairs are graphed as
points in a coordinate plane. The scatter plot is used
to show the relationship between two quantitative
variables.

The following scatter plot represents the relationship

between the number of absences from a class during
the semester and the final grade.

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 58
 Scatter Plot
Absences Grade
x y
Final 100
grade 90 8 78
2 92
(y) 80
5 90
70 12 58
60 15 43
50 9 74
6 81
40

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Absences (x)

From the scatter plot, you can see that as the

number of absences increases, the final grade tends
to decrease.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 59
 Times Series Chart
A data set that is composed of quantitative data entries
taken at regular intervals over a period of time is a
time series. A time series chart is used to graph a
time series.
Example:
The following table lists Month Minutes
the number of minutes January 236
Robert used on his cell
February 242
phone for the last six
months. March 188
April 175
Construct a time May 199
series chart for the 135
June
number of minutes
Continued.
used.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 60
 Times Series Chart
Robert’s Cell Phone
Usage
250

200
Minutes

150

100

50

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June

Month

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 61

§ 2.3
Measures of
Central
Tendency
 Mean
A measure of central tendency is a value that
represents a typical, or central, entry of a data set.
The three most commonly used measures of central
tendency are the mean, the median, and the mode.

The mean of a data set is the sum of the data entries

divided by the number of entries.

Population mean: μ   x Sample mean: x   x

N n

“mu” “x-
bar”

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 63

 Mean
Example:
The following are the ages of all seven
employees of a small company:

53 32 61 57 39 44 57
Calculate the population mean.

x 343 Add the ages

 
N 7 and divide by 7.
49 years

The mean age of the employees is 49 years.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 64

 Median
The median of a data set is the value that lies in the
middle of the data when the data set is ordered. If
the data set has an odd number of entries, the
median is the middle data entry. If the data set has
an even number of entries, the median is the mean
of the two middle data entries.

Example:
Calculate the median age of the seven employees.
53 32 61 57 39 44 57
To find the median, sort the data.
32 39 44 53 57 57 61
The median age of the employees is 53 years.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 65
 Mode
The mode of a data set is the data entry that occurs
with the greatest frequency. If no entry is repeated,
the data set has no mode. If two entries occur with
the same greatest frequency, each entry is a mode
and the data set is called bimodal.
Example:
Find the mode of the ages of the seven employees.
53 32 61 57 39 44 57
The mode is 57 because it occurs the most times.

An outlier is a data entry that is far removed from

the other entries in the data set.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 66
Comparing the Mean, Median and
Mode
Example:
A 29-year-old employee joins the company and
the ages of the employees are now:
53 32 61 57 39 44 57 29

Recalculate the mean, the median, and the mode. Which measure
of central tendency was affected when this new age was added?

Mean = 46.5 The mean takes every value into account,

but is affected by the outlier.
Median = 48.5
The median and mode are not influenced
by extreme values.
Mode = 57
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 67
 Weighted Mean

A weighted mean is the mean of a data set whose entries have

varying weights. A weighted mean is given by
(x w )
x
w
where w is the weight of each entry x.

Example:
Grades in a statistics class are weighted as follows:
Tests are worth 50% of the grade, homework is worth 30% of the
grade and the final is worth 20% of the grade. A student receives a
total of 80 points on tests, 100 points on homework, and 85 points
on his final. What is his current grade?
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 68
 Weighted Mean

Begin by organizing the data in a table.

Source Score, Weight, xw

x w
Tests 80 0.50 40
Homework 100 0.30 30
Final 85 0.20 17
(x w ) 87 0.87
x 
w 100

The student’s current grade is 87%.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 69

 Mean of a Frequency
Distribution
The mean of a frequency distribution for a sample is
approximated by
(x f )
x Note that n  f
n
where x and f are the midpoints and frequencies of the classes.

Example:
The following frequency distribution represents the
ages of 30 students in a statistics class. Find the
mean of the frequency distribution.

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 70
 Mean of a Frequency
Distribution
Class
midpoint
Class x f (x · f )
18 – 25 21.5 13 279.5
26 – 33 29.5 8 236.0
34 – 41 37.5 4 150.0
42 – 49 45.5 3 136.5
50 – 57 53.5 2 107.0
n= Σ=
30 909.0
(x f )  909 30.3
x
n 30
The mean age of the students is 30.3 years.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 71
 Shapes of Distributions
A frequency distribution is symmetric when a
vertical line can be drawn through the middle of a
graph of the distribution and the resulting halves are
approximately the mirror images.
A frequency distribution is uniform (or
rectangular) when all entries, or classes, in the
distribution have equal frequencies. A uniform
distribution is also symmetric.
A frequency distribution is skewed if the “tail” of the
graph elongates more to one side than to the other.
A distribution is skewed left (negatively skewed) if
its tail extends to the left. A distribution is skewed
right (positively skewed) if its tail extends to the
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 72
 Symmetric Distribution

10 Annual Incomes
15,000
20,000
22,000
5
24,000 Income
4
25,000
25,000 f 3
2
26,000
28,000 1

30,000 0
$25000
35,000
mean = median = mode
= $25,000
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 73
 Skewed Left Distribution
10 Annual Incomes
0
20,000
22,000
24,000 5
25,000 4
Income
25,000
f 3
26,000 2
28,000 1
30,000 0
35,000 $25000

mean = $23,500
median = mode = $25,000 Mean < Median
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 74
 Skewed Right Distribution

10 Annual Incomes
15,000
20,000
22,000
5
24,000 Income
25,000 4

25,000 f 3

26,000 2

28,000 1
30,000 0
$25000
1,000,000
mean = $121,500
median = mode = $25,000 Mean > Median
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 75
Summary of Shapes of
Distributions
Symmetric Uniform

Mean = Median

Skewed right Skewed left

Mean > Median Mean < Median

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 76
§ 2.4
Measures of
Variation
 Range
The range of a data set is the difference between the maximum and
minimum date entries in the set.
Range = (Maximum data entry) – (Minimum data entry)

Example:
The following data are the closing prices for a certain stock
on ten successive Fridays. Find the range.

Stock 56 5 57 58 61 63 63 67 6 67
6 7
The range is 67 – 56 = 11.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 78

 Deviation
The deviation of an entry x in a population data set is the difference
between the entry and the mean μ of the data set.
Deviation of x = x – μ

Example:
Stock Deviation
The following data are the closing x x–μ
prices for a certain stock on five 56 56 – 61 = –5
successive Fridays. Find the 58 58 – 61 = –3
deviation of each price. 61 61 – 61 = 0
63 63 – 61 = 2
The mean stock price is 67 67 – 61 = 6
μ = 305/5 = 61.
Σx = 305 Σ(x – μ) = 0

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 79

 Variance and Standard
Deviation
The population variance of a population data set of N entries is
2 (x  μ )2
Population variance =   N .
“sigma
squared”

The population standard deviation of a population data set of N

entries is the square root of the population variance.
(x  μ )2 2
Population standard deviation =     N
.
“sigma”

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 80

 Finding the Population Standard
Deviation
Guidelines
In Words In
Symbols x
1. Find the mean of the μ
population data set. N

2. Find the deviation of each x μ

entry.
x  μ2
3. Square each deviation. 2
SS x  x  μ
4. Add to get the sum of 2
 x  μ
squares. 2 
N
5. Divide by N to get the 2
population variance.  x  μ

N
6. Find the square root of the
variance to get the
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 81
 Finding the Sample Standard
Deviation
Guidelines
In Words In
Symbols x
1. Find the mean of the sample x
data set. n

2. Find the deviation of each x x

entry.
x  x 2
3. Square each deviation. 2
SS x  x  x 
4. Add to get the sum of 2
 x  x 
squares. s2 
n 1
5. Divide by n – 1 to get the 2
sample variance.  x  x 
s
n 1
6. Find the square root of the
variance to get the sample
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 82
 Finding the Population Standard
Deviation
Example:
The following data are the closing prices for a certain stock on five
successive Fridays. The population mean is 61. Find the
population standard deviation.
Always positive!

Stock Deviation Squared SS2 = Σ(x – μ)2 = 74

x x–μ (x – μ)2
2
56 –5 25  x  μ 74
2   14.8
58 –3 9 N 5
61 0 0
2
63 2 4  x  μ
  14.8 3.85
3.8
67 6 36 N

Σx = Σ(x – μ) = Σ(x – μ)2 =

305 0 74 σ  $3.85
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 83
 Interpreting Standard Deviation
When interpreting standard deviation, remember
that is a measure of the typical amount an entry
deviates from the mean. The more the entries are
spread out, the greater the standard deviation.

14 14
12 x=4 12 x =4
Frequency

Frequency
10 s = 1.18 10 s=0
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
2 4 6 2 4 6
Data value Data value
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 84
 Empirical Rule (68-95-
99.7%)
Empirical Rule
For data with a (symmetric) bell-shaped distribution,
the standard deviation has the following
characteristics.
1. About 68% of the data lie within one standard
deviation of the mean.
2. About 95% of the data lie within two standard
deviations of the mean.
3. About 99.7% of the data lie within three standard
deviation of the mean.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 85

Empirical Rule (68-95-
99.7%)
99.7% within 3
standard
deviations
95% within 2
standard
deviations
68% within
1 standard
deviation

34% 34%
2.35% 2.35%
13.5% 13.5%

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 86

 Using the Empirical Rule
Example:
The mean value of homes on a street is $125 thousand with a standard
deviation of $5 thousand. The data set has a bell shaped distribution.
Estimate the percent of homes between $120 and $130 thousand.

68%

105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145

μ–σ μ μ+σ
68% of the houses have a value between $120 and $130
thousand.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 87
 Chebychev’s Theorem
The Empirical Rule is only used for symmetric
distributions.

Chebychev’s Theorem can be used for any distribution,

regardless of the shape.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 88

 Chebychev’s Theorem
The portion of any data set lying within k
standard deviations (k > 1) of the mean is at
least 1  12 .
k
1 1 3
For k = 2: In any data set, at least 1  22 1  4  4 , or 75%, of the

data lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean.

1 1 8
For k = 3: In any data set, at least 1  32 1  9  9 , or 88.9%, of the

data lie within 3 standard deviations of the mean.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 89
Using Chebychev’s Theorem
Example:
The mean time in a women’s 400-meter dash is 52.4
seconds with a standard deviation of 2.2 sec. At least 75%
of the women’s times will fall between what two values?
2 standard deviations


45.8 48 50.2 52.4 54.6 56.8 59

At least 75% of the women’s 400-meter dash times will fall

between 48 and 56.8 seconds.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 90
 Standard Deviation for
Grouped Data

(x  x )2f
Sample standard deviation = s  n 1
where n = Σf is the number of entries in the data set, and x is the
data value or the midpoint of an interval.

Example:
The following frequency distribution represents the
ages of 30 students in a statistics class. The mean
age of the students is 30.3 years. Find the standard
deviation of the frequency distribution.

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 91
 Standard Deviation for
Grouped Data
The mean age of the students is 30.3
years.
Class x f x – x (x – x )2 (x – x )2f
18 – 25 21.5 13 – 8.8 77.44 1006.72
26 – 33 29.5 8 – 0.8 0.64 5.12
34 – 41 37.5 4 7.2 51.84 207.36
42 – 49 45.5 3 15.2 231.04 693.12
50 – 57 53.5 2 23.2 538.24 1076.48
n = 30  2988.80

(x  x )2f 2988.8

s   103.06 10.2
n 1 29

The standard deviation of the ages is 10.2

years. Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 92
§ 2.5
Measures of
Position
 Quartiles
The three quartiles, Q1, Q2, and Q3, approximately
divide an ordered data set into four equal parts.

Median

Q1 Q2 Q3

0 25 50 75 100

Q1 is the median of Q3 is the median of

the data below Q2. the data above Q2.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 94

 Finding Quartiles
Example:
The quiz scores for 15 students is listed below. Find the first,
second and third quartiles of the scores.
28 43 48 51 43 30 55 44 48 33 45 37 37
42 38
Order the data.
Lower half Upper half
28 30 33 37 37 38 42 43 43 44 45 48 48
51 55
Q1 Q2 Q3

About one fourth of the students scores 37 or less; about

one half score 43 or less; and about three fourths score
48 or less.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 95
 Interquartile Range
The interquartile range (IQR) of a data set is the difference
between the third and first quartiles.
Interquartile range (IQR) = Q3 – Q1.

Example:
The quartiles for 15 quiz scores are listed below. Find the
interquartile range.
Q1 = 37 Q2 = 43 Q3 = 48

(IQR) = Q3 – Q1 The quiz scores in the

= 48 – 37 middle portion of the data
= 11 set vary by at most 11
points.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 96
 Box and Whisker Plot
A box-and-whisker plot is an exploratory data
analysis tool that highlights the important features of
a data set.
The five-number summary is used to draw the
graph.
• The minimum entry
• Q1
• Q2 (median)
• Q3
•Example:
The maximum entry
Use the data from the 15 quiz scores to draw a box-
and-whisker plot.
28 30 33 37 37 38 42 43 43 44 45 48 48
51 55 Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 97
 Box and Whisker Plot
Five-number summary
• The minimum entry 28
• Q1 37
• Q2 (median) 43
• Q3 48
55
• The maximum entry
Quiz Scores

28 37 43 48 55

28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 98
 Percentiles and Deciles
Fractiles are numbers that partition, or divide, an
ordered data set.

Percentiles divide an ordered data set into 100

parts. There are 99 percentiles: P1, P2, P3…P99.

Deciles divide an ordered data set into 10 parts.

There are 9 deciles: D1, D2, D3…D9.

A test score at the 80th percentile (P80), indicates

that the test score is greater than 80% of all other
test scores and less than or equal to 20% of the
scores.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 99
 Standard Scores
The standard score or z-score, represents the
number of standard deviations that a data value, x,
falls from the mean, μ.
value  mean x 
z 
standard deviation 

Example:
The test scores for all statistics finals at Union
College have a mean of 78 and standard deviation
of 7. Find the z-score for
a.) a test score of 85,
b.) a test score of 70,
c.) a test score of 78.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 100
 Standard Scores
Example continued:
a.) μ = 78, σ = 7, x = 85
x   85  78
z 1.0 This score is 1 standard
  7 deviation higher than the mean.

b.) μ = 78, σ = 7, x = 70
x   70  78
z
  7  1.14 deviations lower than the mean.
This score is 1.14 standard

c.) μ = 78, σ = 7, x = 78
x   78  78
z 0 This score is the same as the
  7 mean.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 101

 Relative Z-Scores
Example:
John received a 75 on a test whose class mean was
73.2 with a standard deviation of 4.5. Samantha
received a 68.6 on a test whose class mean was 65
with a standard deviation of 3.9. Which student had
the better test score?
John’s z-score Samantha’s z-score
x  75  73.2 x  68.6  65
z  z 
 4.5  3.9
0.4 0.92
John’s score was 0.4 standard deviations higher
than the mean, while Samantha’s score was 0.92
standard deviations higher than the mean.
Samantha’s test score was better than John’s.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 102
Chapter 3

Probability
§ 3.1
Basic Concepts
of Probability
 Probability Experiments
A probability experiment is an action through which
specific results (counts, measurements or responses)
are obtained.
Example:
Rolling a die and observing the
number that is rolled is a
probability experiment.
The result of a single trial in a probability
experiment is the outcome.
The set of all possible outcomes for an experiment is
the sample space.
Example:
The sample space when rolling a die has six
outcomes.
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 105
 Events
An event consists of one or more outcomes and is a
subset of the sample space.
Events are
Example: represented by
A die is rolled. Event A uppercase
is rollingletters.
an even
number.
A simple event is an event that consists of a single
outcome.
Example:
A die is rolled. Event A is rolling an even number.

This is not a simple event because the outcomes

of event A are {2, 4, 6}.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 106

 Classical Probability
Classical (or theoretical) probability is used when
each outcome in a sample space is equally likely to
occur. The classical probability for event E is given by
Number of outcomes in event
P (E )  .
Total number of outcomes in sample space

Example:
A die is rolled.
Find the probability of Event A: rolling a 5.
There is one outcome in Event A: {5}
1
P(A) = 0.167
“Probability of 6
Event A.”

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 107

 Empirical Probability
Empirical (or statistical) probability is based on
observations obtained from probability experiments.
The empirical frequency of an event E is the relative
frequency of event E.
Frequency of Event E
P (E ) 
Total frequency
f

n
Example:
A travel agent determines that in every 50
reservations she makes, 12 will be for a cruise.
What is the probability that the next reservation she
makes will be for a cruise?
12
P(cruise) = 0.24
50
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 108
 Law of Large Numbers
As an experiment is repeated over and over, the
empirical probability of an event approaches the
theoretical (actual) probability of the event.
Example:
Sally flips a coin 20 times and gets 3 heads. The
empirical probability is3 This is not
.
20
representative of the theoretical 1probability which
.
is 2
As the number of times Sally tosses the coin
increases, the law of large numbers indicates that
the empirical probability will get closer and closer
to the theoretical probability.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 109
 Probabilities with Frequency
Distributions
Example:
The following frequency distribution represents the
ages of 30 students in a statistics class. What is the
probability that a student is between 26 and 33
years old?
Ages Frequency, f
8
18 – 25 13 
P (age 26 to 33)
30
26 – 33 8
0.267
34 – 41 4
42 – 49 3
50 – 57 2
 f 30
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 110
 Subjective Probability
Subjective probability results from intuition,
educated guesses, and estimates.
Example:
A business analyst predicts that the probability of a
certain union going on strike is 0.15.

Range of Probabilities Rule

The probability of an event E is between 0 and 1,
inclusive. That is
0  P(A)  1.
Impossible 0.5 Certain
to occur Even to occur
chance
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 111
 Complementary Events
The complement of Event E is the set of all
outcomes in the sample space that are not
included in event E. (Denoted E′ and read “E
prime.”)
P(E) + P (E′ ) = 1 P(E) = 1 – P (E′ ) P (E′ ) = 1 – P(E)

Example:
There are 5 red chips, 4 blue chips, and 6 white
chips in a basket. Find the probability of randomly
selecting a chip that is not blue.
4
P (selecting a blue chip) 0.267

15
4 11
1 
P (not selecting a blue chip)  0.733
15 15
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 112
§ 3.2
Conditional
Probability and
the
Multiplication
Rule
 Conditional Probability
A conditional probability is the probability of an
event occurring, given that another event has already
occurred.
P (B | “Probability of B, given A”
A)
Example:
There are 5 red chip, 4 blue chips, and 6 white
chips in a basket. Two chips are randomly
selected. Find the probability that the second chip
is red given that the first chip is blue. (Assume that
the first chip is not replaced.)
Because the first chip is selected and not
replaced, there are only 14 chips remaining.
5
P (selecting a red chip|first chip is  0.357
14
blue)
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 114
 Conditional Probability
Example:
100 college students were surveyed and asked how
many hours a week they spent studying. The results are
in the table below. Find the probability that a student
spends more than 10 hours studying given that the
student is a male.
Less More
5 to 10 Total
then 5 than 10
Male 11 22 16 49
Female 13 24 14 51
Total 24 46 30 100
The sample space consists of the 49 male students.
Of these 49, 16 spend more than 10 hours a week
studying. 16
 0.327
P (more than 10 hours|male)
49
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 115
 Independent Events
Two events are independent if the occurrence of
one of the events does not affect the probability of
the other event. Two events A and B are
independent if
P (B |A) = P (B) or if P (A |B) = P (A).
Events that are not independent are dependent.
Example:
Decide if the events are independent or dependent.
Selecting a diamond from a standard
deck of cards (A), putting it back in the 
deck, and then selecting a spade from the 
deck13
(B).1 13 1 The occurrence of A does
P (B A )   and P (B )   . not affect the probability
52 4 52 4
of B, so the events are
independent.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 116
 Multiplication Rule
The probability that two events, A and B will occur in
sequence is
P (A and B) = P (A) · P (B |A).
If event A and B are independent, then the rule can
be simplified to P (A and B) = P (A) · P (B).
Example:
Two cards are selected, without replacement, from
a deck. Find the probability of selecting a diamond,
and then selecting a spade.
Because the card is not replaced, the events are
dependent.
P (diamond and spade) = P (diamond) · P (spade |diamond)
13 13 169
   0.064
52 51 2652
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 117
 Multiplication Rule
Example:
A die is rolled and two coins are tossed.
Find the probability of rolling a 5, and flipping two
tails.
1
P (rolling a 5) = .
6
1
Whether or not the roll is a 5, P (Tail ) ,=
2
so the events are independent.

P (5 and T and T ) = P (5)· P (T )· P (T )

1 1 1
  
6 2 2
1
 0.042
24
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 118
§ 3.3
The Addition
Rule
Mutually Exclusive Events
Two events, A and B, are mutually exclusive if
they cannot occur at the same time.

A and B

A
B A B

A and B are A and B are not

mutually exclusive. mutually exclusive.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 120

Mutually Exclusive Events
Example:
Decide if the two events are mutually exclusive.

Event A: Roll a number less than 3 on a die.

Event B: Roll a 4 on a die.

A B
1
4
2

These events cannot happen at the same time,

so the events are mutually exclusive.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 121
Mutually Exclusive Events
Example:
Decide if the two events are mutually exclusive.

Event A: Select a Jack from a deck of cards.

Event B: Select a heart from a deck of cards.

A J9 2 B
3 10
J J A 7
K 4
J 5 8
6Q

Because the card can be a Jack and a heart at

the same time, the events are not mutually
exclusive.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 122
 The Addition Rule
The probability that event A or B will occur is
given by
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B) – P (A and B ).
If events A and B are mutually exclusive, then the
rule can be simplified to P (A or B) = P (A) + P
Example:
(B).
You roll a die. Find the probability that you roll a
number less than 3 or a 4.
The events are mutually
exclusive.
P (roll a number less than 3 or roll a 4)
= P (number is less than 3) + P
2 1 3
(4)
   0.5
6 6 6
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 123
 The Addition Rule
Example:
A card is randomly selected from a deck of cards. Find
the probability that the card is a Jack or the card is a
heart.
The events are not mutually exclusive because
the Jack of hearts can occur in both events.

P (select a Jack or select a heart)

= P (Jack) + P (heart) – P (Jack of
hearts)
4 13 1
  
52 52 52
16

52 0.308

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 124

 The Addition Rule
Example:
100 college students were surveyed and asked how
many hours a week they spent studying. The results are
in the table below. Find the probability that a student
spends between 5 and 10 hours or more than 10 hours
studying. Less More
5 to 10 Total
then 5 than 10
Male 11 22 16 49
Female 13 24 14 51
Total 24 46 30 100

The events are mutually

exclusive.
P (5 to10 hours or more than 10 P (5 to10) + P
46 30 76
hours) =    0.76 (10)
100 100 100
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 125
§ 3.4
Counting
Principles
 Fundamental Counting
Principle
If one event can occur in m ways and a second
event can occur in n ways, the number of ways
the two events can occur in sequence is m· n.
This rule can be extended for any number of
events occurring in a sequence.
Example:
A meal consists of a main dish, a side dish, and a
dessert. How many different meals can be selected if
there are 4 main dishes, 2 side dishes and 5 desserts
available?
# of main # of side # of
dishes dishes desserts
4  2  5 = 40
There are 40 meals available.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 127
 Fundamental Counting
Principle
Example:
Two coins are flipped. How many different outcomes
are there? List the sample space.

Start
1 Coin
st

Tossed
Heads Tails 2 ways to flip the
2nd Coin coin
Tossed
Heads Tails Heads Tails 2 ways to flip the
coin

There are 2  2 = 4 different outcomes: {HH, HT, TH,

TT}.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 128
 Fundamental Counting
Principle
Example:
The access code to a house's security system consists
of 5 digits. Each digit can be 0 through 9. How many
different codes are available if
a.) each digit can be repeated?
b.) each digit can only be used once and not
repeated?
a.) Because each digit can be repeated, there are
10 choices for each of the 5 digits.
10 · 10 · 10 · 10 · 10 = 100,000 codes
b.) Because each digit cannot be repeated, there are
10 choices for the first digit, 9 choices left for the
second digit, 8 for the third, 7 for the fourth and 6
for
10 ·the
9 · fifth.
8 · 7 · 6 = 30,240 codes
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 129
 Permutations
A permutation is an ordered arrangement of
objects. The number of different permutations of n
distinct objects is n!.
“n factorial”

n! = n · (n – 1)· (n – 2)· (n – 3)· …· 3· 2· 1

Example:
How many different surveys are required to cover all
possible question arrangements if there are 7
questions in a survey?

7! = 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 5040 surveys

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 130

Permutation of n Objects Taken r at a
Time
The number of permutations of n elements
taken r at a time is
n! .
n Pr 
(n  r)!
# in the
group # taken
from the
group
Example:
You are required to read 5 books from a list of 8. In
how many different orders can you do so?

Pr  8P5  8!  8! = 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 6720 ways

n
(8  5)! 3! 3 2 1

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 131

 Distinguishable
Permutations
The number of distinguishable permutations of n
objects, where n1 are one type, n2 are another type,
and so on n is! , where n1  n2  n3   nk  n.
n1 ! n2 ! n3 !nk !

Example:
Jessie wants to plant 10 plants along the sidewalk in
her front yard. She has 3 rose bushes, 4 daffodils,
and 3 lilies. In how many distinguishable ways can
the plants be arranged?
10! 10 9 8 7 6 5 4!

3!4!3! 3!4!3!
4,200 different ways to arrange the plants
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 132
Combination of n Objects Taken r at
a Time
A combination is a selection of r objects from a group
of n things when order does not matter. The
number of combinations of r objects selected
from a group of n objects is n !
Cr  .
# in the
n
(n  r)! r !
collection
# taken from
the collection
Example:
You are required to read 5 books from a list of 8.
In how many different ways can you do so if the
order doesn’t matter?
8! 8 7 6 5!
C5 = =
8
3!5! 3!5!
=56 combinations
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 133
 Application of Counting
Principles
Example:
In a state lottery, you must correctly select 6 numbers (in any order)
out of 44 to win the grand prize.
a.) How many ways can 6 numbers be chosen from
the 44 numbers?
b.) If you purchase one lottery ticket, what is the
probability of winning the top prize?

44!
a.) 44C 6  7,059,052 combinations
6!38!
b.) There is only one winning ticket, therefore,
1
P (win)  0.00000014
7059052
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 134
 Chapter 4

Discrete Probability
Distributions
§ 4.1
Probability
Distributions
 Random Variables
A random variable x represents a numerical value
associated with each outcome of a probability distribution.

A random variable is discrete if it has a finite or countable

number of possible outcomes that can be listed.

x
0 2 4 6 8 10

A random variable is continuous if it has an uncountable number or

possible outcomes, represented by the intervals on a number line.

x
0 2 4 6 8 10

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 137

 Random Variables
Example:
Decide if the random variable x is discrete or continuous.

a.) The distance your car travels on a tank of gas

The distance your car travels is a continuous

random variable because it is a measurement
that cannot be counted. (All measurements
are continuous random variables.)

b.) The number of students in a statistics class

The number of students is a discrete random variable because it can be
counted.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 138

 Discrete Probability
Distributions
A discrete probability distribution lists each possible value the random
variable can assume, together with its probability. A probability distribution
must satisfy the following conditions.

In Words In Symbols
1. The probability of each 0  P (x)  1
value of the discrete random
variable is between 0 and 1,
inclusive.
2. The sum of all the ΣP (x) = 1
probabilities is 1.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 139

 Constructing a Discrete Probability
Distribution

Guidelines
Let x be a discrete random variable with possible
outcomes x1, x2, … , xn.
1. Make a frequency distribution for the possible
outcomes.
2. Find the sum of the frequencies.
3. Find the probability of each possible outcome by
dividing its frequency by the sum of the
frequencies.
4. Check that each probability is between 0 and 1
and that the sum is 1.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 140
 Constructing a Discrete Probability
Distribution
Example:
The spinner below is divided into two sections. The probability
of landing on the 1 is 0.25. The probability of landing on the 2
is 0.75. Let x be the number the spinner lands on. Construct a
probability distribution for the random variable x.

1 x P (x)
1 0.25 Each probability
2 is between 0 and
2 0.75
1.
The sum of the probabilities is
1.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 141
 Constructing a Discrete Probability
Distribution
Example:
The spinner below is spun two times. The probability of landing
on the 1 is 0.25. The probability of landing on the 2 is 0.75.
Let x be the sum of the two spins. Construct a probability
distribution for the random variable x.

The possible sums are 2, 3,

and 4.
P (sum of 2) = 0.25  0.25 =
1
0.0625
Spin a 1 on “and” Spin a 1 on the
2
the first second spin.
spin.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 142
 Constructing a Discrete Probability
Distribution
Example continued:

P (sum of 3) = 0.25  0.75 =

1 0.1875
Spin a 1 on “and” Spin a 2 on the
2 the first second spin.
spin. “or
”
P (sum of 3) = 0.75  0.25 =
Sum of
spins, P (x) 0.1875
x Spin a 2 on “and” Spin a 1 on the
2 0.375
0.062 the first second spin.
5 spin.
0.1875 + 0.1875 Continued.
3
4 Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 143
 Constructing a Discrete Probability
Distribution
Example continued:

1 P (sum of 4) = 0.75  0.75 =

0.5625
2 Spin a 2 on “and” Spin a 2 on the
the first second spin.
spin.
Sum of
spins, P (x)
x Each probability is
2 0.0625 between 0 and 1, and the
3 0.5625
0.375 sum of the probabilities is
4 1.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 144
 Graphing a Discrete Probability
Distribution
Example:
Graph the following probability distribution using a histogram.

Sum of P(x)
Sum of Two
spins, P (x) 0.6
Spins
x 0.5
2 0.0625
Probability

3 0.375 0.
4
4 0.5625 0.
3
0.
2
0.
1
0 x
2 3 4
Sum
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 145
 Mean
The mean of a discrete random variable is given by
μ = ΣxP(x).
Each value of x is multiplied by its corresponding
probability and the products are added.
Example:
Find the mean of the probability distribution for the sum of the two spins.

x P (x) xP (x)
2 0.062 2(0.0625) = ΣxP(x) = 3.5
5 0.125
The mean for
3 0.375 3(0.375) = the two spins is
4 0.562 1.125 3.5.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 146
 Variance
The variance of a discrete random variable is given by
2 = Σ(x – μ)2P (x).

Example:
Find the variance of the probability distribution for the sum of the two spins.
The mean is 3.5.

x P (x) x–μ (x – P (x)(x – ΣP(x)(x – 2)2

2 0.062 – μ)2 μ)2  0.376
5 1.5 2.25  0.141
– 0.25  0.094 The variance for
3 0.375
0.5 the two spins is
4 0.562 0.25  0.141 approximately
5 0.5 0.376
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 147
 Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of a discrete random
variable is given by
σ = σ 2.
Example:
Find the standard deviation of the probability distribution for the sum of the
two spins. The variance is 0.376.

σ  σ2
x P (x) x–μ (x – P (x)(x –
μ)2 μ)2  0.376 0.613
2 0.062 –
5 1.5 2.25 0.141 Most of the sums
differ from the
3 0.375 – 0.25 0.094 mean by no more
4 0.562 0.5 0.25 0.141 than 0.6 points.
5 0.5
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 148
 Expected Value
The expected value of a discrete random variable is
equal to the mean of the random variable.
Expected Value = E(x) = μ = ΣxP(x).
Example:
At a raffle, 500 tickets are sold for $1 each for two prizes of $100 and $50.
What is the expected value of your gain?

Your gain for the $100 prize is $100 – $1 = $99.

Your gain for the $50 prize is $50 – $1 = $49.
Write a probability distribution for the possible
gains (or outcomes).
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 149
 Expected Value
Example continued:
At a raffle, 500 tickets are sold for $1 each for two prizes of $100 and $50.
What is the expected value of your gain?

Gain,
P (x) E(x) = ΣxP(x).
x 1
$99 500 1 1 498
$99   $49   ( $1) 
1 500 500 500
$49 500
 $0.70
–$1 498
500
Because the expected value
Winning is negative, you can expect to
no prize
lose $0.70 for each ticket you
buy.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 150
§ 4.2
Binomial
Distributions
 Binomial Experiments
A binomial experiment is a probability experiment
that satisfies the following conditions.
1. The experiment is repeated for a fixed number of
trials, where each trial is independent of other
trials.
2. There are only two possible outcomes of interest
for each trial. The outcomes can be classified as
a success (S) or as a failure (F).
3. The probability of a success P (S) is the same for
each trial.
4. The random variable x counts the number of
successful trials.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 152
 Notation for Binomial
Experiments
Symbol Descriptio
n
n The number of times a trial is
repeated.
p = P (S) The probability of success in a single
trial.
q = P (F) The probability of failure in a single trial.
(q = 1 – p)

x The random variable represents a

count of the number of successes in n
trials: x = 0, 1, 2, 3, … , n.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 153

 Binomial Experiments
Example:
Decide whether the experiment is a binomial
experiment. If it is, specify the values of n, p, and q,
and list the possible values of the random variable x.
If it is not a binomial experiment, explain why.
• You randomly select a card from a deck of cards,
and note if the card is an Ace. You then put the
card back and repeat this process 8 times.
This is a binomial experiment. Each of the 8 selections
represent an independent trial because the card is replaced
before the next one is drawn. There are only two possible
outcomes: either the card is an Ace or not.

n 8 4 1 1 12 x 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
p  q 1  
52 13 13 13
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 154
 Binomial Experiments
Example:
Decide whether the experiment is a binomial
experiment. If it is, specify the values of n, p, and q,
and list the possible values of the random variable x.
If it is not a binomial experiment, explain why.
• You roll a die 10 times and note the number the
die lands on.

This is not a binomial experiment. While each

trial (roll) is independent, there are more than two
possible outcomes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 155

 Binomial Probability
Formula
In a binomial experiment, the probability of exactly x
successes in n trials is
n!
P (x )  nC x pxq n  x  pxq n  x .
(n  x )!x !
Example:
A bag contains 10 chips. 3 of the chips are red, 5 of the chips are white, and 2 of the chips are blue. Three
chips are selected, with replacement. Find the probability that you select exactly one red chip.

3
p = the probability of selecting a red chip  0.3
10
q = 1 – p = 0.7 P (1) 3C 1(0.3)1(0.7)2
n=3 3(0.3)(0.49)
x=1 0.441
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 156
 Binomial Probability
Distribution
Example:
A bag contains 10 chips. 3 of the chips are red, 5 of the chips are white, and 2 of the chips are blue. Four
chips are selected, with replacement. Create a probability distribution for the number of red chips selected.

3
p = the probability of selecting a red chip
 0.3
10
q = 1 – p = 0.7
n=4 x P (x)
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 0 0.240 The binomial
1 0.412 probability
2 0.265 formula is
3 0.076 used to find
4 0.008 each
probability.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 157
 Finding Probabilities
Example:
The following probability distribution represents the probability of selecting 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 red chips
when 4 chips are selected.

x P (x) a.) Find the probability of selecting no

0 0.24 more than 3 red chips.
1 0.412
2 0.265
3 0.076 b.) Find the probability of selecting at
4 0.008 least 1 red chip.
a.) P (no more than 3) = P (x  3) = P (0) + P (1) + P (2) +
(3) = 0.24 + 0.412 + 0.265 + 0.076 = 0.993
b.) P (at least 1) = P (x  1) = 1 – P (0) = 1 – 0.24 = 0.76
Complement
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 158
 Graphing Binomial
Probabilities
Example:
The following probability distribution represents the probability of selecting 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 red chips when
4 chips are selected. Graph the distribution using a histogram.

x P (x) P
0 0.24 0.5 (x) Selecting Red
1 0.412 Probability Chips
0.
2 0.265 4
0.
3 0.076 3
4 0.008 0.
2
0.
1
0 x
0 1 2 3 4
Number of red chips
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 159
 Mean, Variance and Standard
Deviation
Population Parameters of a Binomial
Distribution
Mean: μ np
Variance: σ 2 npq
Standard σ  npq
Example: deviation:
One out of 5 students at a local college say that they skip breakfast in the morning. Find the
mean, variance and standard deviation if 10 students are randomly selected.

n 10 μ np σ 2 npq σ  npq

1
p  0.2 10(0.2) (10)(0.2)(0.8)  1.6
5
q 0.8 2 1.6 1.3

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 160

§ 4.3
More Discrete
Probability
Distributions
 Geometric Distribution
A geometric distribution is a discrete probability
distribution of a random variable x that satisfies the
following conditions.
1. A trial is repeated until a success occurs.
2. The repeated trials are independent of each
other.
3. The probability of a success p is constant for
each trial.
The probability that the first success will occur
on trial x is
P (x) = p(q)x – 1, where q = 1 – p.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 162

 Geometric Distribution
Example:
A fast food chain puts a winning game piece on every fifth package of
French fries. Find the probability that you will win a prize,
a.) with your third purchase of French fries,
b.) with your third or fourth purchase of French fries.

p = 0.20 q = 0.80
a.) x = 3 b.) x = 3, 4
P (3) = (0.2)(0.8)3 – 1 P (3 or 4) = P (3) + P (4)
= (0.2)(0.8)2  0.128 + 0.102
= (0.2)(0.64)  0.230
= 0.128
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 163
 Geometric Distribution
Example:
A fast food chain puts a winning game piece on every fifth package of
French fries. Find the probability that you will win a prize,
a.) with your third purchase of French fries,
b.) with your third or fourth purchase of French fries.

p = 0.20 q = 0.80
a.) x = 3 b.) x = 3, 4
P (3) = (0.2)(0.8)3 – 1 P (3 or 4) = P (3) + P (4)
= (0.2)(0.8)2  0.128 + 0.102
= (0.2)(0.64)  0.230
= 0.128
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 164
 Poisson Distribution
The Poisson distribution is a discrete probability
distribution of a random variable x that satisfies the
following conditions.
1. The experiment consists of counting the number of
times an event, x, occurs in a given interval. The
interval can be an interval of time, area, or volume.
2. The probability of the event occurring is the same for
each interval.
3. The number of occurrences in one interval is
independent of the number of occurrences in other
Theintervals.
probability of exactly x occurrences in an interval is
μ xe μ
P (x ) 
x!
where e  2.71818 and μ is the mean number of
occurrences.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 165
 Poisson Distribution
Example:
The mean number of power outages in the city of Brunswick is 4 per
year. Find the probability that in a given year,
a.) there are exactly 3 outages,
b.) there are more than 3 outages.

a.)  4, x 3 b.) P (more than 3)

1  P (x 3)
43(2.71828)-4
P (3)  1  [P (3)  P (2)+P (1)+P (0)]
3!

0.195 1  (0.195  0.147  0.073  0.018)

0.567

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 166

Chapter 5
Normal
Probability
Distributions
§ 5.1
Introduction to
Normal
Distributions and
the Standard
Distribution
 Properties of Normal
Distributions
A continuous random variable has an infinite
number of possible values that can be represented
by an interval on the number line.

Hours spent studying in a

day
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24

The time spent

studying can be
any number
between 0 and 24.

The probability distribution of a continuous random

variable is called a continuous probability
distribution.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 169
 Properties of Normal
Distributions
The most important probability distribution in
statistics is the normal distribution.

Normal curve

A normal distribution is a continuous probability

distribution for a random variable, x. The graph of
a normal distribution is called the normal curve.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 170

 Properties of Normal
Distributions
Properties of a Normal Distribution
1. The mean, median, and mode are equal.
2. The normal curve is bell-shaped and symmetric
about the mean.
3. The total area under the curve is equal to one.
4. The normal curve approaches, but never touches
the x-axis as it extends farther and farther away
from the mean.
5. Between μ  σ and μ + σ (in the center of the
curve), the graph curves downward. The graph
curves upward to the left of μ  σ and to the right of
μ + σ. The points at which the curve changes from
curving upward to curving downward are called the
inflectionLarson
points.
& Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 171
 Properties of Normal
Distributions
Inflection points

Total area = 1

x
μ  3σ μ  2σ μσ μ μ+σ μ + 2σ μ + 3σ

If x is a continuous random variable having a

normal distribution with mean μ and standard
deviation σ, you can graph a normal curve with the
equation 1
y= e-(x - μ )2 2σ 2
. e =2.178 π =3.14
σ 2π
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 172
 Means and Standard
Deviations
A normal distribution can have any mean
and any positive standard deviation.
Inflection
The mean gives points
Inflection the location of
points the line of
symmetry.
x x
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Mean: μ = 3.5 Mean: μ = 6

Standard Standard
deviation: σ  deviation: σ 
1.3 1.9
The standard deviation describes the spread of the
data.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 173

 Means and Standard
Deviations
Example:
1. Which curve has the greater mean?
2. Which curve has the greater standard
deviation?
B
A

x
1 3 5 7 9 11 13

The line of symmetry of curve A occurs at x = 5. The line of

symmetry of curve B occurs at x = 9. Curve B has the greater
mean.
Curve B is more spread out than curve A, so curve B has the
greater standard deviation.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 174

 Interpreting Graphs
Example:
The heights of fully grown magnolia bushes are
normally distributed. The curve represents the
distribution. What is the mean height of a fully grown
magnolia bush? Estimate the standard deviation.
The inflection points are one
standard deviation away from the
μ=8 mean. σ  0.7

x
6 7 8 9 10
Height (in feet)

The heights of the magnolia bushes are normally

distributed with a mean height of about 8 feet and
a standard deviation of about 0.7 feet.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 175
 The Standard Normal
Distribution
The standard normal distribution is a normal
distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation
of 1.

The horizontal scale

corresponds to z-
scores.
z
3 2 1 0 1 2 3

Any value can be transformed into a z-score by using

Value - Mean x-μ
the formula
z=
Standard deviation
=
σ
.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 176

 The Standard Normal
Distribution
If each data value of a normally distributed random
variable x is transformed into a z-score, the result
will be the standard normal distribution.
The area that falls in the interval
under the nonstandard normal curve
(the x-values) is the same as the
area under the standard normal
curve (within the corresponding z-
boundaries).

z
3 2 1 0 1 2 3

After the formula is used to transform an x-value

into a z-score, the Standard Normal Table in
Appendix B is used to find the cumulative area
under the curve.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 177
The Standard Normal Table
Properties of the Standard Normal
Distribution
1. The cumulative area is close to 0 for z-scores close to z =
3.49.
2. The cumulative area increases as the z-scores increase.
3. The cumulative area for z = 0 is 0.5000.
4. The cumulative area is close to 1 for z-scores close to z =
3.49

Area is close to 0. Area is close to 1.

z
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
z = 3.49 z = 3.49
z=0
Area is 0.5000.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 178

The Standard Normal Table
Example:
Find the cumulative area that corresponds to a z-
score of 2.71.
Appendix B: Standard Normal Table
z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09

0.0 .5000 .5040 .5080 .5120 .5160 .5199 .5239 .5279 .5319 .5359

0.1 .5398 .5438 .5478 .5517 .5557 .5596 .5636 .5675 .5714 .5753

0.2 .5793 .5832 .5871 .5910 .5948 .5987 .6026 .6064 .6103 .6141

2.6 .9953 .9955 .9956 .9957 .9959 .9960 .9961 .9962 .9963 .9964

2.7 .9965 .9966 .9967 .9968 .9969 .9970 .9971 .9972 .9973 .9974

2.8 .9974 .9975 .9976 .9977 .9977 .9978 .9979 .9979 .9980 .9981

Find the area by finding 2.7 in the left hand column,

and then moving across the row to the column
under 0.01.
The area to the left of z = 2.71 is 0.9966.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 179
The Standard Normal Table
Example:
Find the cumulative area that corresponds to a z-
score of 0.25.
Appendix B: Standard Normal Table
z .09 .08 .07 .06 .05 .04 .03 .02 .01 .00

3.4 .0002 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003

3.3 .0003 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0005 .0005 .0005

0.3 .3483 .3520 .3557 .3594 .3632 .3669 .3707 .3745 .3783 .3821

0.2 .3859 .3897 .3936 .3974 .4013 .4052 .4090 .4129 .4168 .4207

0.1 .4247 .4286 .4325 .4364 .4404 .4443 .4483 .4522 .4562 .4602
0.0 .4641 .4681 .4724 .4761 .4801 .4840 .4880 .4920 .4960 .5000

Find the area by finding 0.2 in the left hand column,

and then moving across the row to the column under
0.05.
The area to the left of z = 0.25 is 0.4013
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 180
 Guidelines for Finding
Areas
Finding Areas Under the Standard
Normal Curve
1. Sketch the standard normal curve and shade the
appropriate area under the curve.
2. Find the area by following the directions for each
case shown.
a. To find the area to the left of z, find the area
that2.corresponds
The area to the
to z in the Standard Normal
Table.left of z = 1.23
is 0.8907.

1. Use the table to 0find 1.23

the area for the z-score.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 181

 Guidelines for Finding
Areas
Finding Areas Under the Standard
Normal Curve
b. To find the area to the right of z, use the
Standard Normal Table to find the area that
corresponds to z. Then subtract the area from
1. 2. The area to 3. Subtract to find the area
the left of z = to the right of z = 1.23:
1.23 is 0.8907. 1  0.8907 =
0.1093.

z
0 1.23
1. Use the table to find
the area for the z-score.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 182

 Guidelines for Finding
Areas
Finding Areas Under the Standard
Normal Curve
c. To find the area between two z-scores, find the
area corresponding to each z-score in the
Standard Normal Table. Then subtract the
smaller area
2. The from the larger
area to area.
4. Subtract to find the area
of the region between the
the left of z =
1.23 is two z-scores:
0.8907. 0.8907  0.2266 =
3. The area to the 0.6641.
left of z = 0.75 is
0.2266.

z
0.75 0 1.23

1. Use the table to find the area

for the z-score.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 183

 Guidelines for Finding
Areas
Example:
Find the area under the standard normal
curve to the left of z = 2.33.

Always
draw the
curve!

2.33 0

From the Standard Normal Table, the area is

equal to 0.0099.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 184
 Guidelines for Finding
Areas
Example:
Find the area under the standard normal
curve to the right of z = 0.94.
Always draw
the curve!
0.8264
1  0.8264 =
0.1736
z
0 0.94

From the Standard Normal Table, the area is

equal to 0.1736.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 185

 Guidelines for Finding
Areas
Example:
Find the area under the standard normal
curve between z = 1.98 and z = 1.07.
Always draw
0.8577 the curve!

0.0239 0.8577  0.0239 =

0.8338

z
1.98 0 1.07

From the Standard Normal Table, the area is

equal to 0.8338.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 186
§ 5.2

Normal
Distributions:
Finding
Probabilities
 Probability and Normal
Distributions
If a random variable, x, is normally
distributed, you can find the probability that
x will fall in a given interval by calculating
the area under the normal curve for that
interval.
μ = 10
P(x < σ=5
15)

x
μ =10 15

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 188

 Probability and Normal
Distributions
Normal Distribution Standard Normal
μ = 10 Distribution
μ=0
σ=5 σ=1

P(x < 15) P(z < 1)

x z
μ =10 15 μ =0 1

Same area

P(x < 15) = P(z < 1) = Shaded area under the curv
= 0.8413
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 189
 Probability and Normal
Distributions
Example:
The average on a statistics test was 78 with a
standard deviation of 8. If the test scores are
normally distributed, find the probability that a
student receives a test score less than 90.
μ = 78 x - μ 90-78
σ=8 z =
σ 8
=1.5
P(x < 90)

The probability that a

x student receives a test
μ =78 90 score less than 90 is
z
μ =0 ?
0.9332.
1.5

P(x < 90) = P(z < 1.5) = 0.9332

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 190

 Probability and Normal
Distributions
Example:
The average on a statistics test was 78 with a
standard deviation of 8. If the test scores are
normally distributed, find the probability that a
student receives a test score greater than than 85.
x - μ 85-78
μ = 78 z= =
σ 8
σ=8
=0.875 0.88
P(x > 85)
The probability that a
x student receives a test
μ =78 85 score greater than 85
z
μ =0 0.88
?
is 0.1894.

(x > 85) = P(z > 0.88) = 1  P(z < 0.88) = 1  0.8106 = 0.18

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 191

 Probability and Normal
Distributions
Example:
The average on a statistics test was 78 with a
standard deviation of 8. If the test scores are
normally distributed, find the probability that a
student receives a test score
z =
between
x 60 =
- μ 60 - 78
=
and
-2.2580.
1
σ 8
P(60 < x < 80) x - μ 80 - 78 =0.25
z2  =
σ 8
μ = 78
σ=8
The probability that a
x student receives a test
60 μ =7880 score between 60 and
z
2.25
? μ =0 0.25
?
80 is 0.5865.

60 < x < 80) = P(2.25 < z < 0.25) = P(z < 0.25)  P(z < 2.25)
= 0.5987  0.0122 = 0.5865
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 192
§ 5.3

Normal
Distributions:
Finding Values
 Finding z-Scores
Example:
Find the z-score that corresponds to a cumulative
area of 0.9973. Appendix B: Standard Normal Table
z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08
.08 .09

0.0 .5000 .5040 .5080 .5120 .5160 .5199 .5239 .5279 .5319 .5359

0.1 .5398 .5438 .5478 .5517 .5557 .5596 .5636 .5675 .5714 .5753

0.2 .5793 .5832 .5871 .5910 .5948 .5987 .6026 .6064 .6103 .6141

2.6 .9953 .9955 .9956 .9957 .9959 .9960 .9961 .9962 .9963 .9964

2.7
2.7 .9965 .9966 .9967 .9968 .9969 .9970 .9971 .9972 .9973 .9974

2.8 .9974 .9975 .9976 .9977 .9977 .9978 .9979 .9979 .9980 .9981

Find the z-score by locating 0.9973 in the body of the

Standard Normal Table. The values at the beginning of
the corresponding row and at the top of the column give
the z-score.
The z-score is 2.78.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 194
 Finding z-Scores
Example:
Find the z-score that corresponds to a cumulative
area of 0.4170.
Appendix B: Standard Normal Table
z .09 .08 .07 .06 .05 .04 .03 .02 .01
.01 .00

3.4 .0002 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003

0.2 .0003 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0005 .0005 .0005
Use the
closest
0.3 .3483 .3520 .3557 .3594 .3632 .3669 .3707 .3745 .3783 .3821
area.
0.2
0.2 .3859 .3897 .3936 .3974 .4013 .4052 .4090 .4129 .4168 .4207

0.1 .4247 .4286 .4325 .4364 .4404 .4443 .4483 .4522 .4562 .4602
0.0 .4641 .4681 .4724 .4761 .4801 .4840 .4880 .4920 .4960 .5000

Find the z-score by locating 0.4170 in the body of the

Standard Normal Table. Use the value closest to 0.4170.
The z-score is 0.21.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 195
 Finding a z-Score Given a
Percentile
Example:
Find the z-score that corresponds to P75.

Area = 0.75

z
μ =0 0.67
?

The z-score that corresponds to P75 is the same z-score

that corresponds to an area of 0.75.
The z-score is 0.67.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 196

Transforming a z-Score to an
x-Score
To transform a standard z-score to a data value,
x, in a given population, use the formula
x  μ +zσ.
Example:
The monthly electric bills in a city are normally
distributed with a mean of $120 and a standard deviation
of $16. Find the x-value corresponding to a z-score of
1.60.
x  μ +zσ
=120+1.60(16)
=145.6
We can conclude that an electric bill of $145.60 is 1.6
standard deviations above the mean.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 197
 Finding a Specific Data
Value
Example:
The weights of bags of chips for a vending machine are
normally distributed with a mean of 1.25 ounces and a
standard deviation of 0.1 ounce. Bags that have weights
in the lower 8% are too light and will not work in the
machine. What is the least a bag of chips can weigh and
still work in the machine?
P(z < ?) = 0.08
8% P(z < 1.41) = 0.08
z
?
1.41 0 x  μ +zσ
x

? 1.25
1.25  ( 1.41)0.1
1.11
1.11
The least a bag can weigh and still work in the machine is 1.11
ounces.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 198
§ 5.4

Sampling
Distributions and
the Central Limit
Theorem
 Sampling Distributions
A sampling distribution is the probability
distribution of a sample statistic that is formed when
samples of size n are repeatedly taken from a
population.

Sample Sample
Sample Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Populati Sample
Sample
on

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 200

 Sampling Distributions
If the sample statistic is the sample mean, then the
distribution is the sampling distribution of
sample means.
Sample 3
Sample 1 x3 Sample 2 Sample 6
Sample 4
x
Sample 5
x6
x4
1
5 x x2

The sampling distribution consists of the values of

x1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 , x 5 , x 6 .
the sample means,

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 201

 Properties of Sampling
Distributions
Properties of Sampling Distributions of Sample
Means μx ,
1. The mean of the sample means, is equal to the
μx = μ
population mean.

σx ,
2. The standard deviation of theσ,sample means, is equal to
the population standard σ σ
deviation, divided by the square
= x
root of n.
n

The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the

sample means isFarber,
Larson & called the standard
Elementary error
Statistics: Picturing of3ethe mean.
the World, 202
Sampling Distribution of Sample
Means
Example:
The population values {5, 10, 15, 20} are written on slips
of paper and put in a hat. Two slips are randomly
selected, with replacement.
a. Find the mean, standard deviation, and variance
of the population.
Populatio μ =12.5
n
5 σ =5.59
10
15 σ 2 =31.25
20
Continued.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 203

Sampling Distribution of Sample
Means
Example continued:
The population values {5, 10, 15, 20} are written on slips
of paper and put in a hat. Two slips are randomly
selected, with replacement.
b. Graph the probability histogram for the population
values.
P(x) Probability
Histogram of
0.25 Population of x
This uniform distribution
Probabilit

shows that all values

have the same
probability of being
y

x selected.
5 10 15 20
Population Continued.
values
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 204
Sampling Distribution of Sample
Means
Example continued:
The population values {5, 10, 15, 20} are written on slips
of paper and put in a hat. Two slips are randomly
selected, with replacement.
c. List all the possible samples of size n = 2 and
calculate the mean of each.
Sample x
Sample mean, Sample x
Sample mean,
5, 5 5 15, 5 10 These means
5, 10 7.5 15, 10 12.5 form the
5, 15 10 15, 15 15 sampling
5, 20 12.5 15, 20 17.5 distribution
10, 5 7.5 20, 5 12.5 of the sample
10, 10 10 20, 10 15 means.
10, 15 12.5 20, 15 17.5
10, 20 15 20, 20 20
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 205
Sampling Distribution of Sample
Means
Example continued:
The population values {5, 10, 15, 20} are written on slips
of paper and put in a hat. Two slips are randomly
selected, with replacement.
d. Create the probability distribution of the sample
means.
x f Probability
5 1 0.0625
7.5 2 0.1250 Probability
10 3 0.1875 Distribution of
Sample Means
12.5 4 0.2500
15 3 0.1875
17.5 2 0.1250
20 1 0.0625

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 206

Sampling Distribution of Sample
Means
Example continued:
The population values {5, 10, 15, 20} are written on slips
of paper and put in a hat. Two slips are randomly
selected, with replacement.
e. Graph the probability histogram for the sampling
distribution.
P(x) Probability
Histogram of
0.25 Sampling
Probability

0.20 Distribution
The shape of the graph
0.15
is symmetric and bell
0.10
shaped. It approximates
0.05 a normal distribution.
x
5 7.5 10 12. 15 17. 20
Sample5mean 5
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 207
The Central Limit Theorem
If a sample of size n  30 is taken from a population
with any type of distribution that has a mean = 
and standard deviation = ,

x x
 
the sample means will have a normal
distribution. x x
x x
x x x
x x x x x x

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 208
The Central Limit Theorem
If the population itself is normally distributed,
with mean =  and standard deviation = ,

x

the sample means will have a normal
distribution for any sample size n.
xx
x x
x x x
x x x x x x

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 209
The Central Limit Theorem
In either case, the sampling distribution of sample
means has a mean equal to the population mean.

μx  μ Mean of the
sample means

The sampling distribution of sample means has a

standard deviation equal to the population standard
deviation divided by the square root of n.
σ
σx  Standard deviation of the
sample means
n
This is also called the
standard error of the
mean.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 210
 The Mean and Standard
Error
Example:
The heights of fully grown magnolia bushes have a
mean height of 8 feet and a standard deviation of
0.7 feet. 38 bushes are randomly selected from the
population, and the mean of each sample is
determined. Find the mean and standard error of
the mean of the sampling distribution.
Standard deviation
Mean (standard error)
μx  μ σ
σx 
n
=8
0.7
= =0.11
38
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 211
Interpreting the Central Limit
Theorem
Example continued:
The heights of fully grown magnolia bushes have a
mean height of 8 feet and a standard deviation of
0.7 feet. 38 bushes are randomly selected from
the population, and the mean of each sample is
determined.
The mean of the sampling distribution is 8 feet ,and
the standard error of the sampling distribution is
0.11 feet.
From the Central Limit
Theorem, because the sample
size is greater than 30, the x

sampling distribution can be 7.6 8 8.4

approximated by the normal μx =8 σx =0.11

distribution.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 212
 Finding Probabilities
Example:
The heights of fully grown magnolia bushes have a
mean height of 8 feet and a standard deviation of
0.7 feet. 38 bushes are randomly selected from
the population, and the mean of each sample is
determined.
The mean of the sampling
distribution is 8 feet, and the μx =8 n =38
standard error of the sampling σx =0.11
distribution is 0.11 feet.
Find the probability that the
x
mean height of the 38 bushes
7.6 8 8.4
is less than 7.8 feet. 7.8
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 213
 Finding Probabilities
Example continued:
Find the probability that the mean height of the 38
bushes is less than 7.8 feet.
μx =8 n = 38
σx =0.11
x  μx
z
P ( x < 7.8) σx
x
7.6 8 8.4 7.8  8
=
7.8 0.11
z
0 =  1.82
P (x < 7.8) = P (z1.82
<? = 0.0344
____probability
The ) that the mean height of the 38
bushes is less than 7.8 feet is 0.0344.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 214
 Probability and Normal
Distributions
Example:
The average on a statistics test was 78 with a
standard deviation of 8. If the test scores are
normally distributed, find the probability that the
mean score of 25 randomly selected students is
between
μx =78 75 and 79. x  μx 75  78
=  1.88
z1 = =
σ 8 σx 1.6
σx = = =1.6
n 25
x  μ 79  78 =0.63
z2 = =
P (75 < x < 79) σ 1.6

x
75 78 79
z
1.88
? 00.63
? Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 215
 Probability and Normal
Distributions
Example continued:

P (75 < x < 79)

x
75 78 79
z
?
1.88 0 0.63
?

P(75 < <x79) = P(1.88 < z < 0.63) = P(z < 0.63)  P(z < 1.88)
= 0.7357  0.0301 = 0.7056
Approximately 70.56% of the 25 students will have a
mean score between 75 and 79.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 216
 Probabilities of x and x
Example:
The population mean salary for auto mechanics is
 = $34,000 with a standard deviation of  =
$2,500. Find the probability that the mean salary for a
randomly selected sample of 50 mechanics is greater
μthan
x
$35,000.
=34000
x  μx 35000  34000 =2.83
σ 2500 z =
σx  = =353.55 σx 353.55
n 50
P ( x > 35000)
= P (z > 2.83)
= 1  P (z < 2.83)
= 1  0.9977= 0.0023

The probability that the mean

x salary for a randomly
3400035000 selected sample of 50
z
0 2.83
? mechanics is greater than
$35,000 is 0.0023.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 217
 Probabilities of x and x
Example:
The population mean salary for auto mechanics is
 = $34,000 with a standard deviation of  =
$2,500. Find the probability that the salary for one
randomly selected mechanic is greater than $35,000.
(Notice that the Central Limit Theorem does not apply.)

μ =34000 x - μ 35000-34000 =0.4

z= =
σ 2500
σ =2500
= P (z > 0.4)
P (x > 35000) = 1  P (z < 0.4)
= 1  0.6554= 0.3446

x The probability that the

3400035000 salary for one mechanic is
z
0 0.4
? greater than $35,000 is
0.3446.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 218
 Probabilities of x and x
Example:
The probability that the salary for one randomly
selected mechanic is greater than $35,000 is 0.3446.
In a group of 50 mechanics, approximately how many
would have a salary greater than $35,000?
This also means that 34.46% of
P(x > 35000) = 0.3446 mechanics have a salary greater
than $35,000.

34.46% of 50 = 0.3446  50 = 17.23

You would expect about 17 mechanics out of the

group of 50 to have a salary greater than
$35,000.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 219
 § 5.5

Normal
Approximations to
Binomial
Distributions
 Normal Approximation
The normal distribution is used to approximate
the binomial distribution when it would be
impractical to use the binomial distribution to
find a probability.
Normal Approximation to a Binomial
Distribution
If np  5 and nq  5, then the binomial random
variableμ xis
npapproximately normally distributed with
mean

σ  npq.
and standard deviation

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 221

 Normal Approximation
Example:
Decided whether the normal distribution to
approximate x may be used in the following
examples.
1. Thirty-six percent of people in the United States
own a dog. You randomly select 25 people in
the
np United States
=(25)(0.36) =9 and ask them
Because np andifnq
they own a
are greater
dog.
nq =(25)(0.64) =16 than 5, the normal distribution may
be used.

2. Fourteen percent of people in the United States

own a cat. You
np =(20)(0.14) =2.8 randomly
Becauseselect np is not 20greater
people in 5,
than
the
nq United States
=(20)(0.86) =17.2 and the asknormal them if they own
distribution a
may NOT
cat. be used.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 222
 Correction for Continuity
The binomial distribution is discrete and can be
represented by a probability histogram.
Exact binomial To calculate exact binomial
probability
probabilities, the binomial formula is
used for each value of x and the
P(x = c) results are added. Normal
approximation
P(c 0.5 < x < c + 0.5)

c
x

When using the continuous x

c  0.5 c c + 0.5
normal distribution to approximate a binomial
distribution, move 0.5 unit to the left and right of
the midpoint to include all possible x-values in the
interval.
This is called the correction for
continuity. Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 223
 Correction for Continuity
Example:
Use a correction for continuity to convert the binomial
intervals to a normal distribution interval.
1. The probability of getting between 125 and 145
successes, inclusive.
The discrete midpoint values are 125, 126, …, 145.
The continuous interval is 124.5 < x < 145.5.

2. The probability of getting exactly 100 successes.

The discrete midpoint value is 100.
The continuous interval is 99.5 < x < 100.5.

3. The probability of getting at least 67 successes.

The discrete midpoint values are 67, 68, ….
The continuous interval is x > 66.5.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 224

 Guidelines
Using the Normal Distribution to Approximate Binomial
Probabilities
In Words In Symbols
Specify n, p, and q.
1. Verify that the binomial distribution applies.
Is np  5?
2. Determine if you can use the normal Is nq  5?
distribution to approximate x, the binomial
variable. μ np
3. Find the mean  and standard deviation σ  npq
for the distribution.
4. Apply the appropriate continuity correction. Add or subtract 0.5
Shade the corresponding area under the from endpoints.
x-μ
normal curve. z 
σ
5. Find the corresponding z-value(s). Use the Standard
6. Find the probability. Normal Table.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 225

 Approximating a Binomial
Probability
Example:
Thirty-one percent of the seniors in a certain high school
plan to attend college. If 50 students are randomly
selected, find the probability that less than 14 students plan
to attend
np college.
= (50)(0.31) = 15.5The variable x is approximately
nq = (50)(0.69) = 34.5normally distributed with  = np =
15.5
σ = and
npq = (50)(0.31)(0.69) =3.27.

P(x < 13.5) = P(z < 0.61)

= 0.2709
Correction for = 15.5
continuity
13.5
x - μ 13.5 - 15.5
z  = =-0.61 x
σ 3.27 10 15 20
The probability that less than 14 plan to attend college is
0.2079.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 226
 Approximating a Binomial
Probability
Example:
A survey reports that forty-eight percent of US citizens
own computers. 45 citizens are randomly selected and
asked whether he or she owns a computer. What is the
probability that exactly 10 say yes?
np = (45)(0.48) = 12 μ =12
nq = (45)(0.52) = 23.4 σ  npq = (45)(0.48)(0.52) =3.35

= P(0.75 < z  0.45)

P(9.5 < x < 10.5)  = 12
= 0.0997 10.5
Correction for
continuity 9.5
x
The probability that exactly 5 10 15
10 US citizens own a computer is
0.0997. Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 227
 Chapter 6

Confidence Intervals
§ 6.1
Confidence
Intervals for the
Mean (Large
Samples)
Point Estimate for Population
μ
A point estimate is a single value estimate for a
population parameter. The most unbiased point
x.
estimate of the population mean, , is the sample
mean,
Example:
A random sample of 32 textbook prices (rounded to the nearest
dollar) is taken from a local college bookstore. Find a point
estimate for the population mean, .
34 34 38 45 45 45 45 54
56 65 65 66 67 67 68 74 x 74.22
79 86 87 87 87 88 90 90
94 95 96 98 98 101 110 121

The point estimate for the population mean of

textbooks in the bookstore is $74.22.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 230
 Interval Estimate
An interval estimate is an interval, or range of
values, used to estimate a population parameter.

Point estimate
for textbooks
•
74.22

interval estimate

How confident do we want to be that the interval

estimate contains the population mean, μ?

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 231

 Level of Confidence
The level of confidence c is the probability that the
interval estimate contains the population parameter.

c is the area beneath

c the normal curve
between the critical
values.
1 1
(1 – c) (1 – c)
2 2
z
 zc z=0 zc
Use the Standard
Critical Normal Table to find
values the corresponding z-
The remaining area in the tails isscores.
1–c.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 232
 Common Levels of
Confidence
If the level of confidence is 90%, this means that we
are 90% confident that the interval contains the
population mean, μ.
0.90

0.05 0.05

z
zc = 1.645
zc z = 0 zc = z1.645
c

The corresponding z-scores are ±

1.645.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 233

 Common Levels of
Confidence
If the level of confidence is 95%, this means that we
are 95% confident that the interval contains the
population mean, μ.
0.95

0.025 0.025

z
zc =  z1.96
c
z = 0 zc =zc1.96

The corresponding z-scores are ± 1.96.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 234

 Common Levels of
Confidence
If the level of confidence is 99%, this means that we
are 99% confident that the interval contains the
population mean, μ.
0.99

0.005 0.005

z
zc = 2.575
zc z = 0 zc = z2.575
c

The corresponding z-scores are ±

2.575.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 235

 Margin of Error
The difference between the point estimate and the
actual population parameter value is called the
sampling error.
When μ is estimated, the sampling error is the
x
difference μ – . Since μ is usually unknown, the
maximum value for the error can be calculated using
the level of confidence.
Given a level of confidence, the margin of error
(sometimes called the maximum error of estimate or
error tolerance) E is the greatest possible distance
between the point estimate and the value of the
parameter σ
E itzcis
σxestimating.
zc
n When n  30, the sample
standard deviation, s, can be
used for .
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 236
 Margin of Error
Example:
A random sample of 32 textbook prices is taken from a
local college bookstore. The mean of the samplex is
= 74.22, and the sample standard deviation is s =
23.44.
Use a 95% confidence level and find the margin of
error for the mean price of all textbooks in the
bookstore. σ 23.44 Since n  30, s can be
E zc 1.96  substituted for σ.
n 32
8.12

We are 95% confident that the margin of error for

the population mean (all the textbooks in the
bookstore) is about $8.12.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 237
 Confidence Intervals for μ
A c-confidence interval for the population mean μ is
x E   xE
The probability that the confidence interval contains μ
is c.

Example:
A random sample of 32 textbook prices is taken from
x
a local college bookstore. The mean of the sample is
= 74.22, the sample standard deviation is s =
23.44, and the margin of error is E = 8.12.
Construct a 95% confidence interval for the mean
price of all textbooks in the bookstore.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 238
 Confidence Intervals for μ
Example continued:
Construct a 95% confidence interval for the mean
price of all textbooks in the bookstore.
x =74.22 s = 23.44 E = 8.12
Left endpoint = ? Right endpoint
=?
• •
x =74.22 •
x  E 74.22  8.12 x  E 74.22  8.12
= 66.1 = 82.34

With 95% confidence we can say that the cost for all
textbooks in the bookstore is between $66.10 and
$82.34.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 239
Finding Confidence Intervals
for μ
Finding a Confidence Interval for a Population
Mean (n  30 or σ known with a normally
distributed
In Words population) In Symbols
1. Find the sample statistics n and
x. x
x
n
2. Specify , if known. Otherwise, if n  (x  x)2
30, find the sample standard deviation s
n 1
s and use it as an estimate for .
Use the
3. Find the critical value zc that
Standard Normal
corresponds to the given level of Table.σ
confidence. E zc
n
4. Find the margin of error E. L eft endpoint: x  E
Right endpoint: x  E
5. Find the left and right endpoints I nterval: x  E    x  E
and form Larson
the confidence
& Farber, Elementaryinterval.
Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 240
Confidence Intervals for μ (
Known)
Example:
A random sample of 25 students had a grade point
average with a mean of 2.86. Past studies have
shown that the standard deviation is 0.15 and the
population is normally distributed.
Construct a 90% confidence interval for the
population mean grade point average.
n = 25 x =2.86  = 0.15
σ 0.15
zc = 1.645 E zc 1.645  0.05
n 25
x  E 2.86±0.05 2.81 < μ < 2.91
With 90% confidence we can say that the mean grade point
average for all students in the population is between 2.81
and 2.91. Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e
241
 Sample Size
Given a c-confidence level and a maximum error of
estimate, E, the minimum sample size n, needed to
estimate , the population mean, is
2
 zc 
n   .
 E 
If  is unknown, you can estimate it using s provided
you have a preliminary sample with at least 30
members.
Example:
You want to estimate the mean price of all the
textbooks in the college bookstore. How many books
must be included in your sample if you want to be 99%
confident that the sample mean is within $5 of Continued. the
population Larson
mean? & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 242
 Sample Size
Example continued:
You want to estimate the mean price of all the
textbooks in the college bookstore. How many books
must be included in your sample if you want to be 99%
confident that the sample mean is within $5 of the
population mean?
x =74.22   s = 23.44 zc = 2.575
2 2
 zc   2.575 23.44 
n    
 E   5 
145.7 (Always round up.)

You should include at least 146 books in your sample.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 243

§ 6.2
Confidence
Intervals for the
Mean (Small
Samples)
 The t-Distribution
When a sample size is less than 30, and the random
variable x is approximately normally distributed, it follow
a t-distribution.
x μ
t
s
n
Properties of the t-distribution
1. The t-distribution is bell shaped and symmetric about the
mean.
2. The t-distribution is a family of curves, each determined by a
parameter called the degrees of freedom. The degrees of x
freedom are the number of free choices left after a sample
statistic such as is calculated. When you use a t-distribution
to estimate a population mean, the degrees of freedom are
equal to one less than the sample size.
d.f. = n – 1 Degrees of freedom Continued
.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 245
 The t-Distribution
3. The total area under a t-curve is 1 or 100%.
4. The mean, median, and mode of the t-distribution are equal to
zero.
5. As the degrees of freedom increase, the t-distribution
approaches the normal distribution. After 30 d.f., the t-
distribution is very close to the standard normal z-distribution.

The tails in the t-

distribution are “thicker”
than those in the standard
d.f. = 2 normal distribution.
d.f. = t
5 0
Standard
normal curve

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 246

 Critical Values of t
Example:
Find the critical value tc for a 95% confidence
when the sample size is 5.
Appendix B: Table 5: t-Distribution
Level of
confidence
,c 0.50 0.80 0.90 0.95 0.98
One tail,  0.25 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01
d.f Two tails, 0.50 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.02
. 
1 1.000 3.078 6.314 12.70 31.82
6 1
2 .816 1.886 2.920 4.303 6.965
d.f. =3 n – 1 = 5 – 1 =.765 1.638 2.353 3.182 4.541
4
4
c = 0.95 tc =
.7412.776
1.533 2.132 2.776 3.747
5 .727 1.476 2.015 2.571 Continued
3.365
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e
. 247
 Critical Values of t
Example continued:
Find the critical value tc for a 95% confidence
when the sample size is 5.
95% of the area under the t-distribution curve with
4 degrees of freedom lies between t = ±2.776.

c = 0.95

t
tc =  2.776 tc =
2.776

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 248

 Confidence Intervals and t-
Distributions
Constructing a Confidence Interval for the Mean:
t-Distribution
In Words In Symbols
x,
1. Identify the sample statistics n, x
x (x  x)2
n s
and s. n 1

2. Identify the degrees of d.f. = n – 1

freedom, the level of
confidence c, and the critical
value tc. s
E tc
n
3. Find the margin of error E.
L eft endpoint: x  E
4. Find the left and right Right endpoint: x  E
endpoints and form the I nterval: x  E    x  E
confidence interval.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 249
 Constructing a Confidence
Interval
Example:
In a random sample of 20 customers at a local fast
food restaurant, the mean waiting time to order is 95
seconds, and the standard deviation is 21 seconds.
Assume the wait times are normally distributed and
construct a 90% confidence interval for the mean wait
ntime
= 20of allx customers.
95 s = 21
s 21 8.1
d.f. = 19 tc = 1.729 E tc 1.729 
n 20
x E =95±8.1 86.9 < μ < 103.1

We are 90% confident that the mean wait time for all
customers is between 86.9 and 103.1 seconds.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 250
 Normal or t-Distribution?
Use the normal distribution
Yes σ with
Is n  30? E zc .
n
No
If  is unknown, use s instead.
Is the population normally,
You cannot use the normal
or approximately No
distribution or the t-
normally, distributed?
distribution.
Yes
Use the normal distribution
Is  known? Yes σ with
E zc .
n
No

Use the t-distribution with

s
E tc
n
and n – 1 degrees of
freedom.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 251
 Normal or t-Distribution?
Example:
Determine whether to use the normal distribution, the
t-distribution, or neither.
a.) n = 50, the distribution is skewed, s = 2.5
The normal distribution would be used because the
sample size is 50.
b.) n = 25, the distribution is skewed, s = 52.9
Neither distribution would be used because n < 30
and the distribution is skewed.
c.) n = 25, the distribution is normal,  = 4.12
The normal distribution would be used because
although n < 30, the population standard deviation
is known.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 252
§ 6.3
Confidence
Intervals for
Population
Proportions
Point Estimate for Population
p
The probability of success in a single trial of a
binomial experiment is p. This probability is a
population proportion.
The point estimate for p, the population proportion
of successes, is given by the proportion of successes
in a sample and is denoted by
x
pˆ 
n
where x is the number of successes in the sample
and n is the number in the sample. The point
qˆ
estimate for the proportion p̂. failures is =p̂ 1 – qˆ
of
The symbols and are read as “p hat” and “q
hat.”
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 254
 Point Estimate for
Population p
Example:
In a survey of 1250 US adults, 450 of them said that their favorite
sport to watch is baseball. Find a point estimate for the population
proportion of US adults who say their favorite sport to watch is
baseball.
n = 1250 x = 450

x 450
pˆ   0.36
n 1250

The point estimate for the proportion of US adults

who say baseball is their favorite sport to watch is
0.36, or 36%.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 255

 Confidence Intervals for p
A c-confidence interval for the population proportion
p is pˆ  E  p  pˆ  E

where pq
ˆ ˆ.
E zc
n

The probability that the confidence interval contains p

Example:
is c.
Construct a 90% confidence interval for the
proportion of US adults who say baseball is their
favorite sport to watch.
n = 1250 x = 450 p̂ 0.36
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 256
 Confidence Intervals for p
Example continued:
p̂ 0.36 pq
ˆˆ
n = 1250 x = 450 E zc
n
(0.36)(0.64) 0.022
qˆ 0.64 1.645
1250

Left endpoint = ? Right endpoint

=?
• p̂ •
0.36 •
p̂  E 0.36  0.022 p̂  E 0.36  0.022
0.338 0.382
With 90% confidence we can say that the proportion
of all US adults who say baseball is their favorite
sport to watch is between 33.8% and 38.2%.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 257
Finding Confidence Intervals
for p
Constructing a Confidence Interval for a Population
Proportion
In Words In Symbols
1. Identify the sample statistics n and
x. x
p̂. pˆ 
n
2. Find the point estimate npˆ 5, nqˆ 5
3. Verify that the sampling distribution
can be approximated by the normal
distribution. Use the
4. Find the critical value zc that Standard Normal
corresponds to the given level of Table.
confidence. pq
ˆˆ
E zc
n
5. Find the margin of error E. Left endpoint:p̂  E
6. Find the left and right endpoints and Right endpoint:p̂  E
Interval:pˆ  E  p  pˆ  E
form the confidence interval.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 258
 Sample Size
Given a c-confidence level and a margin of error, E,
the minimum sample size n, needed to estimate p is
2
 zc 
ˆˆ  .
n  pq
E
This formula assumes you have an estimate p̂for qˆand
.
pˆ 0.5 qˆ 0.5.
If not, use and
Example:
You wish to find out, with 95% confidence and within
2% of the true population, the proportion of US adults
who say that baseball is their favorite sport to watch.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 259
 Sample Size
Example continued:
You wish to find out, with 95% confidence and within
2% of the true population, the proportion of US adults
who say that baseball is their favorite sport to watch.
n = 1250 x = 450 p̂ 0.36
2 2
z  1.96 
ˆ ˆ  c  (0.36)(0.64) 
n  pq 
E  0.02 
2212.8 (Always round up.)

You should sample at least 2213 adults to be 95%

confident.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 260
§ 6.4
Confidence
Intervals for
Variance and
Standard
Deviation
 The Chi-Square
Distribution
The point estimate for 2 is s2, and the point
estimate for  is s. s2 is the most unbiased estimate
for 2.
You can use the chi-square distribution to construct
a confidence interval for the variance and standard
deviation.

If the random variable x has a normal distribution,

then the distribution of

2 (n  1)s 2
 
σ2
forms a chi-square distribution for samples of
any size n > 1.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 262
 The Chi-Square
Distribution
Four properties of the chi-square distribution are as
follows.
1. All chi-square values χ2 are greater than or equal to
zero.
2. The chi-square distribution is a family of curves, each
determined by the degrees of freedom. To form a
confidence interval for 2, use the χ2-distribution with
degrees of freedom. To form a confidence interval for
2, use the χ2-distribution with degrees of freedom
equal to one less than the sample size.
3. The area under each curve of the chi-square
distribution equals one.
4. Find the critical value zc that corresponds to the given
level of confidence.
5. Chi-squareLarson
distributions are positively skewed.
& Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 263
 Critical Values for X2
There are two critical values for each level of
confidence. The value χ2R represents the right-tail
critical value and χ2L represents the left-tail critical
value.

1 c
1 1 2c 1 2c
2
X2 X2
X 2
R X 2
L

Area to the right of X2R Area to the right of

X2L

1 c c
The area between the left and
2 1 c right critical values is c.
2
X2
X 2
L X 2
R

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 264

 Critical Values for X2
Example:
Find the critical values χ2R and χ2L for an 80%
confidence when the sample size is 18.

Because the sample size is 18, there are

d.f. = n – 1 = 18 – 1 = 17 degrees of freedom,

Area to the right of χ2R =1  c 1  0.8 0.1

2 2

Area to the right of χ2L =1  c 1  0.8 0.9

2 2

Use the Chi-square distribution table to find the

critical values. Continued
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e
. 265
 Critical Values for X2
Example continued:
Appendix B: Table 6: χ2-Distribution
Degrees
of 
freedom 0.995 0.99 0.97 0.95
0.90 0.10 0.05
5
1 - - 0.001 0.004 0.016 2.706 3.841
2 0.010 0.020 0.051 0.103 0.211 4.605 5.991
3 0.072 0.115 0.216 0.352 0.584 6.251 7.815
16 5.142 5.812 6.908 7.962 9.312 23.54 26.29
2 6
17 5.697 6.408 7.564 8.672 10.08 24.76 27.58
5 9 7
χ2R =1824.7696.265 7.015 8.231 9.390 10.86 25.98 28.86
5 9 9
χ2L = 10.085
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 266
 Confidence Intervals for  2

and 
A c-confidence interval for a population variance
and standard deviation is as follows.

Confidence Interval for 2:

(n  1)s 2 2 (n  1)s 2
2
σ 
XR X L2

Confidence Interval for :

(n  1)s 2 (n  1)s 2
2
σ 
XR X L2

The probability that the confidence intervals

contain 2 or  is c.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 267

 Confidence Intervals for  2

and 
Constructing a Confidence Interval for a Variance and
a Standard Deviation
In Words In Symbols
1. Verify that the population has a
normal distribution.
2. Identify the sample statistic n d.f. = n  1
and the degrees of freedom.
3. Find the point estimate s . 2 2 (x  x )2
s 
n 1
4. Find the critical value χ2R and χ2L Use Table 6 in
that correspond to the given Appendix B.
level of confidence.

Continued
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e
. 268
 Confidence Intervals for  2

and 
Constructing a Confidence Interval for a Variance and
a Standard Deviation
In Words In Symbols
5. Find the left and right (n  1)s 2 2 (n  1)s 2
σ 
endpoints and form the XR2
X L2
confidence interval.
(n  1)s 2 (n  1)s 2
6. Find the confidence interval for 2
σ 
XR X L2
the population standard
deviation by taking the square
root of each endpoint.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 269

 Constructing a Confidence
Interval
Example:
You randomly select and weigh 41 samples of 16-ounce bags of
potato chips. The sample standard deviation is 0.05 ounce.
Assuming the weights are normally distributed, construct a 90%
confidence interval for the population standard deviation.
d.f. = n – 1 = 41 – 1 = 40 degrees of freedom,

Area to the right of χ2R =1  c 1  0.9 0.05

2 2
Area to the right of χ2L =1  c 1  0.9 0.95
2 2
The critical values are χ2R = 55.758 and χ2L = 26.509.
Continued
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e
. 270
 Constructing a Confidence
Interval
Example continued:
χ2L = 26.509
χ2R = 55.758
Left endpoint = ? Right endpoint
=?
• •
(n  1)s 2 (41  1)(0.05)2 (n  1)s 2 (41  1)(0.05)2
 
 R2 55.758  L2 26.509
0.04 0.06
0.04  σ  0.06

With 90% confidence we can say that the population

standard deviation is between 0.04 and 0.06 ounces.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 271
Chapter 7

Hypothesis Testing
with One Sample
§ 7.1
Introduction to
Hypothesis
Testing
 Hypothesis Tests
A hypothesis test is a process that uses sample
statistics to test a claim about the value of a
population parameter.
If a manufacturer of rechargeable batteries
claims that the batteries they produce are good
for an average of at least 1,000 charges, a
sample would be taken to test this claim.

A verbal statement, or claim, about a population

parameter is called a statistical hypothesis.
To test the average of 1000 hours, a pair of
hypotheses are stated – one that represents the
claim and the other, its complement. When one
of these hypotheses is false, the other must be
true. Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 274
 Stating a Hypothesis
“H subzero” or “H naught”
A null hypothesis H0 is a statistical hypothesis that
contains a statement of equality such as , =, or .
“H sub-a”

A alternative hypothesis Ha is the complement of the

null hypothesis. It is a statement that must be true if
H0 is false and contains a statement of inequality such
as >, , or <.
To write the null and alternative hypotheses,
translate the claim made about the population
parameter from a verbal statement to a
mathematical statement.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 275
 Stating a Hypothesis
Example:
Write the claim as a mathematical sentence. State
the null and alternative hypotheses and identify
which represents the claim.
A manufacturer claims that its rechargeable
batteries have an average life of at least 1,000
charges.
  1000
Condition of
H0:   1000 (Claim)
equality
Ha:  < 1000
Complement of
the null
hypothesis
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 276
 Stating a Hypothesis
Example:
Write the claim as a mathematical sentence. State
the null and alternative hypotheses and identify
which represents the claim.
Statesville college claims that 94% of their
graduates find employment within six months of
graduation.
p = 0.94
Condition of
H0: p = 0.94 (Claim)
equality
Ha: p  0.94
Complement of
the null
hypothesis
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 277
 Types of Errors
No matter which hypothesis represents the claim,
always begin the hypothesis test assuming that the
null hypothesis is true.

At the end of the test, one of two decisions will be

made:
1. reject the null hypothesis, or
2. fail to reject the null hypothesis.
A type I error occurs if the null hypothesis is
rejected when it is true.
A type II error occurs if the null hypothesis is not
rejected when it is false.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 278

 Types of Errors

Actual Truth of H0
Decision H0 is true H0 is false

Do not reject Correct Type II Error

H0 Decision
Reject H0 Type I Error Correct
Decision

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 279

 Types of Errors
Example:
Statesville college claims that 94% of their graduates
find employment within six months of graduation.
What will a type I or type II error be?
H0: p = 0.94 (Claim)
Ha: p  0.94
A type I error is rejecting the null when it is true.
The population proportion is actually 0.94, but is
rejected. (We believe it is not 0.94.)
A type II error is failing to reject the null when it is
false.population proportion is not 0.94, but is not
The
rejected. (We believe it is 0.94.)
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 280
 Level of Significance
In a hypothesis test, the level of significance is
your maximum allowable probability of making a
type I error. It is denoted by , the lowercase Greek
letter alpha.
Hypothesis tests
are based on .

The probability of making a type II error is denoted

by By
, the lowercase
setting Greek
the level letter beta. at a small
of significance
value, you are saying that you want the
probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis to
be small.
Commonly used levels of significance:
 = 0.10  = 0.05  = 0.01
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 281
 Statistical Tests
After stating the null and alternative hypotheses and
specifying the level of significance, a random sample
is taken from the population and sample statistics
are calculated.
The statistic that is compared with the parameter
in the null hypothesis is called the test statistic.

Population Test Standardized test

parameter statistic statistic
μ x z (n  30)
t (n < 30)
p p̂ z
2 s2 X2

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 282

 P-values
If the null hypothesis is true, a P-value (or
probability value) of a hypothesis test is the
probability of obtaining a sample statistic with a
value as extreme or more extreme than the one
determined from the sample data.
The P-value of a hypothesis test depends on the nature
of the test.

There are three types of hypothesis tests – a left-,

right-, or two-tailed test. The type of test depends
on the region of the sampling distribution that favors
a rejection of H0. This region is indicated by the
alternative hypothesis.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 283

 Left-tailed Test
1. If the alternative hypothesis contains the less-than
inequality symbol (<), the hypothesis test is a left-
tailed test.
H0: μ  k
H a: μ < k

P is the area
to the left of
the test
statistic.
z
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Test
statistic
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 284
 Right-tailed Test
2. If the alternative hypothesis contains the greater-
than symbol (>), the hypothesis test is a right-
tailed test.
H0: μ  k
H a: μ > k

P is the area
to the right of
the test
statistic.

z
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Test
statistic
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 285
 Two-tailed Test
3. If the alternative hypothesis contains the not-
equal-to symbol (), the hypothesis test is a two-
1
tailed test. In a two-tailed test, each
2 tail has an
area ofk P.
H0: μ =
H a: μ  k
P is twice the
P is twice the area to the
area to the left right of the
of the negative positive test
test statistic. statistic.

z
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Test Test
statistic statistic
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 286
Identifying Types of Tests
Example:
For each claim, state H0 and Ha. Then determine whether
the hypothesis test is a left-tailed, right-tailed, or two-
tailed
a.) A test.
cigarette manufacturer claims that less than one-
eighth of the US adult population smokes
cigarettes.
H0: p  0.125
Ha: p < 0.125 Left-tailed test
(Claim)
b.) A local telephone company claims that the
average length of a phone call is 8 minutes.
H0: μ = 8 (Claim)
Ha: μ  8 Two-tailed test

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 287

 Making a Decision
Decision Rule Based on P-value
To use a P-value to make a conclusion in a hypothesis
test, compare the P-value with .
1. If P  , then reject H0.
2. If P > , then fail to reject H0.

Claim
Decision Claim is H0 Claim is Ha
There is enough evidence There is enough evidence
Reject H0 to reject the claim. to support the claim.
There is not enough There is not enough
Do not reject H0 evidence to reject the evidence to support the
claim. claim.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 288
 Interpreting a Decision
Example:
You perform a hypothesis test for the following claim.
How should you interpret your decision if you reject
H0? If you fail to reject H0?
H0: (Claim) A cigarette manufacturer claims that
less than one-eighth of the US adult population
smokes cigarettes.
If H0 is rejected, you should conclude “there is sufficient
evidence to indicate that the manufacturer’s claim is false.”
If you fail to reject H0, you should conclude “there is not
sufficient evidence to indicate that the manufacturer’s claim
is false.”

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 289

 Steps for Hypothesis
Testing
1. State the claim mathematically and verbally. Identify
the null and alternative hypotheses.
H0: ? Ha: ? This sampling
distribution is based on
the assumption that H0
2. Specify the level of significance. is true.
=?
3. Determine the
standardized sampling z
0
distribution and draw its
graph.
4. Calculate the test statistic z
and its standardized value. 0
Add it to your sketch. Test statistic

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 290
 Steps for Hypothesis
Testing
5. Find the P-value.
6. Use the following decision rule.
Is the P-value less than
or equal to the level of No Fail to reject H0.
significance?

Yes

Reject H0.

7. Write a statement to interpret the decision in the

context of the original claim.

These steps apply to left-tailed, right-tailed,

and two-tailed tests.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 291

§ 7.2
Hypothesis
Testing for the
Mean (Large
Samples)
 Using P-values to Make a
Decision
Decision Rule Based on P-value
To use a P-value to make a conclusion in a hypothesis
test, compare the P-value with .
1. If P  , then reject H0.
2. If P > , then fail to reject H0.

Recall that when the sample size is at least 30, the

sampling distribution for the sample mean is
normal.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 293

 Using P-values to Make a
Decision
Example:
The P-value for a hypothesis test is P = 0.0256.
What is your decision if the level of significance is
a.) 0.05,

b.) 0.01?

a.) Because 0.0256 is < 0.05, you should reject the

null hypothesis.

b.) Because 0.0256 is > 0.01, you should fail to

reject the null hypothesis.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 294

 Finding the P-value
After determining the hypothesis test’s standardized
test statistic and the test statistic’s corresponding
area, do one of the following to find the P-value.
a. For a left-tailed test, P = (Area in left tail).
b. For a right-tailed test, P = (Area in right tail).
c. For a two-tailed test, P = 2(Area in tail of test
statistic).
Example:
The test statistic for a right-tailed test is z = 1.56. Find the P-
value.
P-value = 0.0594 The area to the right of z = 1.56
is 1 – .9406 = 0.0594.
0 1.56 z

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 295

 Finding the P-value
Example:
The test statistic for a two-tailed test is z = 2.63.
Find the P-value.

0.0043
z
2.63 0

The area to the left of z = 2.63 is 0.0043.

The P-value is 2(0.0043) = 0.0086

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 296

Using P-values for a z-Test
The z-test for the mean is a statistical test for a
population mean. The z-test can be used when the
population is normal and  is known, or for any
population when the sample size n is at least 30.

x
The test statistic is the sample mean and the
standardized test statistic is z.

x μ σ
z standard error σx
σ n n
When n  30, the sample standard deviation s can be
substituted for .
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 297
Using P-values for a z-Test
Using P-values for a z-Test for a Mean μ
In Words In Symbols
1. State the claim mathematically State H0 and Ha.
and verbally. Identify the null
and alternative hypotheses.
2. Specify the level of Identify .
significance. x μ
z
3. Determine the standardized σ n
test statistic.
Use Table 4 in
4. Find the area that corresponds Appendix B.
to z.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 298
Using P-values for a z-Test
Using P-values for a z-Test for a Mean μ
In Words In Symbols
5. Find the P-value.
a. For a left-tailed test, P = (Area in left tail).
b. For a right-tailed test, P = (Area in right tail).
c. For a two-tailed test, P = 2(Area in tail of test statistic).

6. Make a decision to reject or fail Reject H0 if P-

to reject the null hypothesis. value is less than
7. Interpret the decision in the or equal to .
context of the original claim. Otherwise, fail to
reject H0.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 299

 Hypothesis Testing with P-
values
Example:
A manufacturer claims that its rechargeable
batteries are good for an average of more than
1,000 charges. A random sample of 100 batteries
has a mean life of 1002 charges and a standard
deviation of 14. Is there enough evidence to
support this claim at  = 0.01?
H0:   1000 Ha:  > 1000 (Claim)
The level of significance is  =
0.01.
The standardized test statistic is
x  μ 1002  1000
z 
σ n 14 100
1.43
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 300
Hypothesis Testing with P-
values
Example continued:
A manufacturer claims that its rechargeable
batteries are good for an average of more than
1,000 charges. A random sample of 100 batteries
has a mean life of 1002 charges and a standard
deviation of 14. Is there enough evidence to
support
H0:   1000 H :=
this claim at > 0.01?
1000 (Claim)
a

z 1.43
The area to the right of P-value is greater than
z = 1.43 is P = 0.0764.  = 0.01, fail to reject H0.
0 1.43 z

At the 1% level of significance, there is not enough

evidence to support the claim that the rechargeable battery
has an average life of at least 1000 charges.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 301
Rejection Regions and Critical
Values
A rejection region (or critical region) of the
sampling distribution is the range of values for which
the null hypothesis is not probable. If a test statistic
falls in this region, the null hypothesis is rejected. A
critical value z0 separates the rejection region from
the nonrejection region.
Example:
Find the critical value and rejection region for a right
tailed test with  = 0.01.

 = 0.01 The rejection region is to the

z
right of z0 = 2.575.
0 2.575

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 302

Rejection Regions and Critical
Values
Finding Critical Values in a Normal Distribution
1. Specify the level of significance .
2. Decide whether the test is left-, right-, or two-tailed.
3. Find the critical value(s) z0. If the hypothesis test is
a. left-tailed, find the z-score that corresponds to
an area of ,
b. right-tailed, find the z-score that corresponds to
an area of 1 – ,
1
c. two-tailed, find the z-score that corresponds2 to
 and 112 – .
4. Sketch the standard normal distribution. Draw a
vertical line at each critical value and shade the
rejection region(s).
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 303
 Rejection Regions for a z-
Test
Decision Rule Based on Rejection Region
To use a rejection region to conduct a hypothesis test,
calculate the standardized test statistic, z. If the
standardized test statistic
1. is in the rejection region, then reject H0.
2. is not in the rejection region, then fail to reject H0.
Fail to reject Ho. Fail to reject Ho.

Reject Ho. Reject Ho.

z z
z < z0 z0 0 0 z0 z > z0
Fail to reject Ho.
Left-Tailed Test Right-Tailed Test
Reject Ho. Reject
Ho. z
z < z0 z0 0 z0 z > z0
Two-Tailed Test
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 304
Rejection Regions for a z-
Test
Using Rejection Regions for a z-Test for a
Mean μ
In Words In Symbols
1. State the claim mathematically State H0 and Ha.
and verbally. Identify the null
and alternative hypotheses.
2. Specify the level of Identify .
significance.
3. Sketch the sampling
Use Table 4 in
distribution.
Appendix B.
4. Determine the critical value(s).
5. Determine the rejection
regions(s). Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 305
Rejection Regions for a z-
Test
Using Rejection Regions for a z-Test for a
Mean μ
In Words In Symbols
x μ
6. Find the standardized test z or if n 30
σ
statistic. n
use σ s.

7. Make a decision to reject or fail If z is in the

to reject the null hypothesis. rejection region,
reject H0.
Otherwise, fail to
8. Interpret the decision in the reject H0.
context of the original claim.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 306

 Testing with Rejection
Regions
Example:
A local telephone company claims that the average
length of a phone call is 8 minutes. In a random
sample of 58 phone calls, the sample mean was 7.8
minutes and the standard deviation was 0.5
minutes. Is there enough evidence to support this
claim at  = 0.05?
H0:  = 8 (Claim) Ha:   8
The level of significance is  =
0.05.

0.025 0.025
z
z0 = 1.96 0 z0 = 1.96

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 307
 Testing with Rejection
Regions
Example continued:
A local telephone company claims that the average
length of a phone call is 8 minutes. In a random
sample of 58 phone calls, the sample mean was 7.8
minutes and the standard deviation was 0.5
minutes. Is there enough evidence to support this
Hclaim at (Claim)
0:  = 8
= 0.05? Ha:   8
The standardized test statistic is The test statistic falls
x μ 7.8  8 in the rejection
z 
σ n 0.5 58 region, so H0 is
 3.05. rejected.
z
z0 = 1.96 0 z0 = 1.96

At the 5% level of significance, there is enough evidence to

reject the claim that the average length of a phone call is 8
minutes. Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 308
§ 7.3
Hypothesis
Testing for the
Mean (Small
Samples)
 Critical Values in a t-
Distribution
Finding Critical Values in a t-Distribution
1. Identify the level of significance .
2. Identify the degrees of freedom d.f. = n – 1.
3. Find the critical value(s) using Table 5 in Appendix
B in the row with n – 1 degrees of freedom. If the
hypothesis test is
a. left-tailed, use “One Tail,  ” column with a
negative sign,
b. right-tailed, use “One Tail,  ” column with a
positive sign,
c. two-tailed, use “Two Tails,  ” column with a
negative and a positive sign.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 310

Finding Critical Values for t
Example:
Find the critical value t0 for a right-tailed test given  =
0.01 and n = 24.

The degrees of freedom are d.f. = n – 1 = 24 – 1 = 23.

To find the critical value, use Table 5 with d.f. = 23 and

0.01 in the “One Tail,  “ column. Because the test is a
right-tail test, the critical value is positive.
t0 = 2.500

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 311

Finding Critical Values for t
Example:
Find the critical values t0 and t0 for a two-tailed test
given  = 0.10 and n = 12.

The degrees of freedom are d.f. = n – 1 = 12 – 1 = 11.

To find the critical value, use Table 5 with d.f. = 11

and 0.10 in the “Two Tail,  “ column. Because the
test is a two-tail test, one critical value is negative and
one is positive.
t0 =  1.796 and t0 = 1.796

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 312

 t-Test for a Mean μ (n < 30, 
Unknown)
The t-test for the mean is a statistical test for a
population mean. The t-test can be used when the
population is normal or nearly normal,  is unknown,
and n < 30.
x
The test statistic is the sample mean and the
standardized test statistic is t.

x μ
t
s n

The degrees of freedom are d.f. = n – 1 .

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 313

 t-Test for a Mean μ (n < 30, 
Unknown)
Using the t-Test for a Mean μ (Small Sample)
In Words In Symbols
1. State the claim mathematically State H0 and Ha.
and verbally. Identify the null
and alternative hypotheses.
2. Specify the level of Identify .
significance.
d.f. = n – 1.
3. Identify the degrees of freedom
and sketch the sampling
distribution.
Use Table 5 in
4. Determine any critical values. Appendix B.
5. Determine any rejection
Continued.
region(s).
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 314
 t-Test for a Mean μ (n < 30, 
Unknown)
Using the t-Test for a Mean μ (Small Sample)
In Words In Symbols
6. Find the standardized test x μ
t
statistic. s
n

7. Make a decision to reject or fail If t is in the

to reject the null hypothesis. rejection region,
reject H0.
Otherwise, fail to
8. Interpret the decision in the reject H0.
context of the original claim.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 315

 Testing μ Using Critical
Values
Example:
A local telephone company claims that the average
length of a phone call is 8 minutes. In a random
sample of 18 phone calls, the sample mean was 7.8
minutes and the standard deviation was 0.5
minutes. Is there enough evidence to support this
claim at  = 0.05?
H0:  = 8 (Claim) Ha:   8
The level of significance is  =
0.05.
The test is a two-tailed test.
Degrees of freedom are d.f. = 18 – 1 = 17.

The critical values are t0 = 2.110 and t0 =

Continued.
2.110
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 316
 Testing μ Using Critical
Values
Example continued:
A local telephone company claims that the average
length of a phone call is 8 minutes. In a random
sample of 18 phone calls, the sample mean was 7.8
minutes and the standard deviation was 0.5
minutes. Is there enough evidence to support this
Hclaim at (Claim)
0:  = 8
= 0.05? Ha:   8
The standardized test statistic is The test statistic falls
x μ 7.8  8 in the nonrejection
t 
s n 0.5 18 region, so H0 is not
 1.70. rejected.
z
z0 = 2.110 0 z0 = 2.110

At the 5% level of significance, there is not enough evidence to

reject the claim that the average length of a phone call is 8
minutes.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 317
 Testing μ Using P-values
Example:
A manufacturer claims that its rechargeable
batteries have an average life greater than 1,000
charges. A random sample of 10 batteries has a
mean life of 1002 charges and a standard deviation
of 14. Is there enough evidence to support this
Hclaim at  = 0.01?
0:   1000 Ha:  > 1000
(Claim)
The level of significance is  =
0.01.
The degrees of freedom are d.f. = n – 1 = 10 – 1 = 9.
The standardized test statistic is
x  μ 1002  1000
t 
s n 14 10
0.45 Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 318
 Testing μ Using P-values
Example continued:
A manufacturer claims that its rechargeable
batteries have an average life greater than 1,000
charges. A random sample of 10 batteries has a
mean life of 1002 charges and a standard deviation
of 14. Is there enough evidence to support this
claim
H at  = 0.01?
0:   1000
Ha:  > 1000 (Claim)
t 0.45 Using the d.f. = 9 row from Table 5, you can
determine that P is greater than  = 0.25 and is
therefore also greater than the 0.01 significance
0 0.45 z level. H0 would fail to be rejected.
At the 1% level of significance, there is not enough
evidence to support the claim that the rechargeable battery
has an average life of at least 1000 charges.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 319
§ 7.4
Hypothesis
Testing for
Proportions
 z-Test for a Population
Proportion
The z-test for a population is a statistical test for a
population proportion. The z-test can be used when a
binomial distribution is given such that np  5 and nq
 5.
The test statistic is the sample proportion
p̂ and the
standardized test statistic is z.

pˆ  μ pˆ p p
z  ˆ
σ pˆ pq n

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 321

 Hypothesis Test for
Proportions
Using a z-Test for a Proportion p
Verify that np  5 and nq  5.
In Words In Symbols
1. State the claim mathematically State H0 and Ha.
and verbally. Identify the null
and alternative hypotheses.
2. Specify the level of Identify .
significance.
3. Sketch the sampling
Use Table 4 in
distribution.
Appendix B.
4. Determine any critical values.

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 322
 Hypothesis Test for
Proportions
Using a z-Test for a Proportion p
Verify that np  5 and nq  5.
In Words In Symbols
5. Determine any rejection
regions. p̂  p
z
6. Find the standardized test pq n
statistic.
If z is in the
7. Make a decision to reject or fail rejection region,
to reject the null hypothesis. reject H0.
Otherwise, fail to
8. Interpret the decision in the
reject H0.
context of the original claim.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 323

 Hypothesis Test for
Proportions
Example:
Statesville college claims that more than 94% of
their graduates find employment within six months
of graduation. In a sample of 500 randomly
selected graduates, 475 of them were employed.
Is there enough evidence to support the college’s
claim at a 1% level of significance?

Verify that the products np and nq are at least 5.

np = (500)(0.94) = 470 and nq = (500)(0.06)
= 30
H0: p  0.94 Ha: p > 0.94
(Claim)
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 324
 Hypothesis Test for
Proportions
Example continued:
Statesville college claims that more than 94% of
their graduates find employment within six months
of graduation. In a sample of 500 randomly
selected graduates, 475 of them were employed.
Is there enough evidence to support the college’s
claim at a 1% level of significance?
H0: p  0.94 Ha: p > 0.94 (Claim)
Because the test is a right-tailed test and  = 0.01, the
critical value is 2.33. p̂  p  0.95  0.94
z
pq n (0.94)(0.06) 500
0.94 Test statistic
0 2.33 z
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 325
 Hypothesis Test for
Proportions
Example continued:
Statesville college claims that more than 94% of
their graduates find employment within six months
of graduation. In a sample of 500 randomly
selected graduates, 475 of them were employed.
Is there enough evidence to support the college’s
claim at a 1% level of significance?
H0: p  0.94 Ha: p > 0.94 (Claim)

The test statistic falls

0 2.33 z in the nonrejection
z 0.94 region, so H0 is not
rejected.
At the 1% level of significance, there is not enough
evidence to support the college’s claim.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 326
 Hypothesis Test for
Proportions
Example:
A cigarette manufacturer claims that one-eighth of
the US adult population smokes cigarettes. In a
random sample of 100 adults, 5 are cigarette
smokers. Test the manufacturer's claim at  =
0.05.
Verify that the products np and nq are at least 5.
np = (100)(0.125) = 12.5 and nq = (100)(0.875)
= 87.5
H0: p = 0.125 (Claim) Ha: p  0.125

Because the test is a two-tailed test and  = 0.05,

the critical values are ± 1.96.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 327
 Hypothesis Test for
Proportions
Example continued:
A cigarette manufacturer claims that one-eighth of
the US adult population smokes cigarettes. In a
random sample of 100 adults, 5 are cigarettes
smokers. Test the manufacturer's claim at  = 0.05.
H0: p = 0.125 (Claim) Ha: p  0.125

2.27 The test statistic

z is
z
p̂  p  0.05  0.125
z0 = 1.96 0 z0 = 1.96
pq n (0.125)(0.875) 100
 2.27 Reject H0.
At the 5% level of significance, there is enough
evidence to reject the claim that one-eighth of the
population smokes.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 328
§ 7.5
Hypothesis
Testing for
Variance and
Standard
Deviation
 Critical Values for the χ2-
Test
Finding Critical Values for the χ2-Distribution
1. Specify the level of significance .
2. Determine the degrees of freedom d.f. = n – 1.
3. The critical values for the χ2-distribution are found in
Table 6 of Appendix B. To find the critical value(s)
for a
a. right-tailed test, use the value that corresponds
to d.f. and .
b. left-tailed test, use the value that corresponds to
. use the values that corresponds
d.f. and 1 –test,
c. two-tailed
1 1
to d.f. and
2
 and d.f. 2 1 – .
and

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 330

Finding Critical Values for the
χ2
Example:
Find the critical value for a left-tailed test when n =
19 and  = 0.05.
There are 18 d.f. The area to the right of the
critical value is 1 –  = 1 – 0.05 = 0.95.
From Table 6, the critical value is χ20 = 9.390.

Example:
Find the critical value for a two-tailed test when n =
26 and  = 0.01.
There are 25 d.f. The areas to the right of the
1 1
critical values
2
are  = 0.005
2
and 1 –  = 0.995.
From Table 6, the critical values are χ2L = 10.520
and χ2R = 46.928.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 331
 The Chi-Square Test
The χ2-test for a variance or standard deviation is
a statistical test for a population variance or standard
deviation. The χ2-test can be used when the
population is normal.

The test statistic is s2 and the standardized test

statistic
2 (n  1)s 2
χ 
σ2
follows a chi-square distribution with degrees of
freedom d.f. = n – 1.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 332

 The Chi-Square Test
Using the χ2-Test for a Variance or Standard
Deviation
In Words In Symbols
1. State the claim mathematically State H0 and Ha.
and verbally. Identify the null
and alternative hypotheses.
2. Specify the level of Identify .
significance.
d.f. = n – 1
3. Determine the degrees of
freedom and sketch the
sampling distribution.
Use Table 6 in
4. Determine any critical values. Appendix B.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 333
 The Chi-Square Test
Using the χ2-Test for a Variance or Standard
Deviation
In Words In Symbols
5. Determine any rejection
regions.
2 (n  1)s 2
χ 
6. Find the standardized test σ2
statistic.
If χ2 is in the
7. Make a decision to reject or fail rejection region,
to reject the null hypothesis. reject H0.
Otherwise, fail to
reject H0.
8. Interpret the decision in the
context of the original claim.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 334

 Hypothesis Test for Standard
Deviation
Example:
A college professor claims that the standard
deviation for students taking a statistics test is less
than 30. 10 tests are randomly selected and the
standard deviation is found to be 28.8. Test this
professor’s claim at the  = 0.01 level.
H0:   30 Ha:  < 30 (Claim)
This is a left-tailed test with d.f.= 9 and  = 0.01.

 0.01

X2
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 335
 Hypothesis Test for Standard
Deviation
Example continued:
A college professor claims that the standard
deviation for students taking a statistics test is less
than 30. 10 tests are randomly selected and the
standard deviation is found to be 28.8. Test this
professor’s claim at the  = 0.01 level.
H0:   30 Ha:  < 30 (Claim)

χ =
2  0.01 2(n  1)s 2 (10  1)(28.8)2
0 χ  2

σ 302
2.088 8.29
X2
X 2
0 = 2.088 Fail to reject H0.
At the 1% level of significance, there is not enough
evidence to support the professor’s claim.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 336
 Hypothesis Test for
Variance
Example:
A local balloon company claims that the variance for
the time its helium balloons will stay afloat is 5 hours.
A disgruntled customer wants to test this claim. She
randomly selects 23 customers and finds that the
variance of the sample is 4.5 seconds. At  = 0.05,
does she have enough evidence to reject the
company’s claim?
H0: 2 = 5 (Claim) Ha: 2  5
This is a two-tailed test with d.f.= 22 and  = 0.05.

1 1
 0.025  0.025
2 2
X2
X 2
L X 2
R Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 337
 Hypothesis Test for
Variance
Example continued:
A local balloon company claims that the variance for
the time its helium balloons will stay afloat is 5 hours.
A disgruntled customer wants to test this claim. She
randomly selects 23 customers and finds that the
variance of the sample is 4.5 seconds. At  = 0.05,
does she have enough evidence to reject the
company’s claim?
H0: 2 = 5 (Claim) Ha: 2  5

The critical values are χ2L = 10.982 and χ2R =

36.781.
1 1
 0.025  0.025
2 2
X2
10.982 36.781 Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 338
 Hypothesis Test for
Variance
Example continued:
A local balloon company claims that the variance for
the time one of its helium balloons will stay afloat is 5
hours. A disgruntled customer wants to test this
claim. She randomly selects 23 customers and finds
that the variance of the sample is 4.5 seconds. At  =
0.05, does she have enough evidence to reject the
company’s claim?
H0: 2 = 5 (Claim) Ha: 2  5
2 (n  1)s 2 (23  1)(4.5)
χ   19.8 Fail to reject H0.
σ2 5

19.8 At  = 0.05, there is not enough

evidence to reject the claim that
X2
10.982 36.781 the variance of the float time is 5
hours.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 339
Chapter 8

Hypothesis Testing
with Two Samples
§ 8.1
Testing the
Difference Between
Means (Large
Independent
Samples)
 Two Sample Hypothesis
Testing
In a two-sample hypothesis test, two parameters
from two populations are compared.

For a two-sample hypothesis test,

1. the null hypothesis H0 is a statistical hypothesis that
usually states there is no difference between the
parameters of two populations. The null hypothesis
always contains the symbol , =, or .
2. the alternative hypothesis Ha is a statistical
hypothesis that is true when H0 is false. The alternative
hypothesis always contains the symbol >, , or <.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 342

 Two Sample Hypothesis
Testing
To write a null and alternative hypothesis for a two-sample
hypothesis test, translate the claim made about the population
parameters from a verbal statement to a mathematical statement.

H0: μ 1 =
μ2 H0 : μ 1  μ 2 H0 : μ 1  μ 2
Ha: μ1  Ha: μ1 > μ2 Ha: μ1 < μ2
μ2

Regardless of which hypotheses used, μ1 = μ2 is

always assumed to be true.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 343

 Two Sample z-Test
Three conditions are necessary to perform a z-test for the
difference between two population means μ1 and μ2.

1. The samples must be randomly selected.

2. The samples must be independent. Two
samples are independent if the sample
selected from one population is not related to
the sample selected from the second
population.
3. Each sample size must be at least 30, or, if not,
each population must have a normal
distribution with a known standard deviation.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 344

 Two Sample z-Test
If these requirements are met, the sampling distribution forx1  x 2
(the difference of the sample means) is a normal distribution with
mean and standard error of

μx  x  μx  μx  μ1  μ2
1 2 1 2

and
2 2
σ σ
σx  x  σx2  σx2  1  2 .
1 2 1
n1 n22

Sampling
x1  x2
distribution  σx  x
1 2
μ1  μ2 σx  x
1 2
x1  x2

for
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 345
 Two Sample z-Test
Two-Sample z-Test for the Difference Between
Means
A two-sample z-test can be used to test the difference
between two population means μ1 and μ2 when a large
sample (at least 30) is randomly selected from each
population and
x1  xthe samples are independent. The test
2
statistic is and the standardized test statistic is
z
x1  x2  μ1  μ2
where σx  x 
σ12 σ22
 .
σx  x
1 2
n1 n2 1 2

When the samples are large, you can use s1 and s2 in

place of 1 and 2. If the samples are not large, you can
still use a two-sample z-test, provided the populations are
normally distributed and the population standard
deviations are known.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 346
Two Sample z-Test for the
Means
Using a Two-Sample z-Test for the Difference
Between Means (Large Independent Samples)
In Words In Symbols
1. State the claim mathematically. State H0 and Ha.
Identify the null and
alternative hypotheses.
2. Specify the level of Identify .
significance.
3. Sketch the sampling Use Table 4 in
distribution. Appendix B.
4. Determine the critical value(s).
5. Determine the rejection
regions(s). Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 347
Two Sample z-Test for the
Means
Using a Two-Sample z-Test for the Difference
Between Means (Large Independent Samples)
In Words In Symbols
x1  x2  μ1  μ2
6. Find the standardized test z
σx  x
statistic. 1 2

7. Make a decision to reject or fail If z is in the

to reject the null hypothesis. rejection region,
8. Interpret the decision in the reject H0.
context of the original claim. Otherwise, fail to
reject H0.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 348

 Two Sample z-Test for the
Means
Example:
A high school math teacher claims that students in
her class will score higher on the math portion of the
ACT then students in a colleague’s math class. The
mean ACT math score for 49 students in her class is
22.1 and the standard deviation is 4.8. The mean
ACT math score for 44 of the colleague’s students is
19.8 and the standard deviation is 5.4. At  = 0.10,
can the teacher’s claim be supported?
H0: 1  2
=
Ha: 1 > 2 (Claim) 0.10

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
z

z0 = 1.28 Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 349
Two Sample z-Test for the
Means
Example continued:
H0: 1  2 z0 = 1.28
Ha: 1 > 2 (Claim) z
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

The standardized error is Reject H0.

σ12 σ22 4.82
5.42
σx  x     1.0644.
1 2
n1 n2 49 44

The standardized test statistic is

z
x1  x2  μ1  μ2 22.1  19.8  0
 2.161
σx  x 1.0644
1 2

There is enough evidence at the 10% level to support

the teacher’s claim that her students score better on th
ACT.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 350
§ 8.2
Testing the
Difference Between
Means (Small
Independent
Samples)
 Two Sample t-Test
If samples of size less than 30 are taken from normally-
distributed populations, a t-test may be used to test the
difference between the population means μ1 and μ2.

Three conditions are necessary to use a t-test for

small independent samples.

1. The samples must be randomly selected.

2. The samples must be independent. Two samples
are independent if the sample selected from
one population is not related to the sample
selected from the second population.
3. Each population must have a normal distribution.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 352

 Two Sample t-Test
Two-Sample t-Test for the Difference Between
Means
A two-sample t-test is used to test the difference
between two population means μ1 and μ2 when a sample is
randomly selected from each population. Performing this
test requires each population to be normally distributed,
x1  x2  should
and the samples
t
μ1  μ2be independent. The
.
standardized test
σx  xstatistic is
1 2

If the population variances σ̂. are equal, then information

from the two samples is combined to calculate a pooled
n1  1s12  n2  1s22
σˆ  of the standard deviation
estimate n n  2
1 2 Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 353
 Two Sample t-Test
Two-Sample t-Test (Continued)
The standard error for the sampling distribution of is
x1  x2
1 1
σx  x σˆ   Variances
1 2
n1 n2
equal
and d.f.= n1 + n2 – 2.

If the population variances are not equal, then the standard

error is
s12 s22
σx  x   Variances not equal
1 2
n1 n2

and d.f = smaller of n1 – 1 or n2 – 1.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 354

 Normal or t-Distribution?
Are both sample sizes
Yes Use the z-test.
at least 30?
No

Are both populations You cannot use

No
normally distributed? the z-test or the t-
test. Use the t-test
Yes
with
Are both population Are the population σx  x σˆ
1 1

No Yes n1 n2
standard deviations variances equal? 1 2

known? and d.f =

Yes No n1 + n2 – 2.

Use the z-test. Use the t-test with

s12 s22
σx  x  
1 2
n1 n2
and d.f = smaller of n1 – 1
or n2 – 1.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 355
Two Sample t-Test for the
Means
Using a Two-Sample t-Test for the Difference
Between Means (Small Independent Samples)
In Words In Symbols
1. State the claim mathematically. State H0 and Ha.
Identify the null and
alternative hypotheses.
2. Specify the level of Identify .
significance.
d.f. = n1+ n2 – 2 or
3. Identify the degrees of freedom d.f. = smaller of n1 –
and sketch the sampling 1 or n2 – 1.
distribution.
Use Table 5 in
4. Determine the critical value(s). Appendix B.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 356
Two Sample t-Test for the
Means
Using a Two-Sample t-Test for the Difference
Between Means (Small Independent Samples)
In Words In Symbols
5. Determine the rejection
regions(s).

t
x1  x2  μ1  μ2
6. Find the standardized test σx  x
1 2

statistic.
If t is in the
rejection region,
7. Make a decision to reject or fail reject H0.
to reject the null hypothesis. Otherwise, fail to
reject H0.
8. Interpret the decision in the
context of the& Farber,
Larson original claim.
Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 357
 Two Sample t-Test for the
Means
Example:
A random sample of 17 police officers in Brownsville
has a mean annual income of $35,800 and a standard
deviation of $7,800. In Greensville, a random sample
of 18 police officers has a mean annual income of
$35,100 and a standard deviation of $7,375. Test the
claim at  = 0.01 that the mean annual incomes in
the two cities are not the same. Assume the
population variances are equal.
H0: 1 = 2 1 1
 0.005  0.005
Ha: 1  2 (Claim)2 2

t
d.f. = n1 + n2 – 2 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
t0 = 2.576
–t0 = –2.576
= 17 + 18 – 2 = Continued.
33 Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 358
 Two Sample t-Test for the
Means
Example continued:
H0: 1 = 2
Ha: 1  2 (Claim) -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
t
–t0 = –2.576 t0 = 2.576

The standardized error is

σx  x σˆ
1 1
 
n1  1s12  n2  1s22  1 1

1 2
n1 n2 n1  n2  2 n1 n2


17  178002  18  173752  1 1

17  18  2 17 18

7584.0355(0.3382)

2564.92 Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 359
 Two Sample t-Test for the
Means
Example continued:
H0: 1 = 2
Ha: 1  2 (Claim) -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
t
–t0 = –2.576 t0 = 2.576

The standardized test statistic is

t 
x1  x2  μ1  μ2 35800  35100  0
σx  x  0.273
1 2
2564.92
Fail to reject H0.
There is not enough evidence at the 1% level to
support the claim that the mean annual incomes
differ.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 360
§ 8.3
Testing the
Difference Between
Means (Dependent
Samples)
Independent and Dependent
Samples
Two samples are independent if the sample
selected from one population is not related to the
sample selected from the second population. Two
samples are dependent if each member of one
sample corresponds to a member of the other
sample. Dependent samples are also called paired
samples or matched samples.

Independent Dependent Samples

Samples
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 362
 Independent and Dependent
Samples
Example:
Classify each pair of samples as independent or
dependent.
Sample 1: The weight of 24 students in a first-grade class
Sample 2: The height of the same 24 students
These samples are dependent because the weight
and height can be paired with respect to each
student.
Sample 1: The average price of 15 new trucks
Sample 2: The average price of 20 used sedans
These samples are independent because it is not
possible to pair the new trucks with the used
sedans. The data represents prices for different
vehicles.Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e
363
t-Test for the Difference Between
Means
To perform a two-sample hypothesis test with
dependent samples, the difference between each
data pair is first found:
d = x 1 – x2 Difference between entries for a data pair.

The test statistic is the mean d of these differences.

d Mean of the differences between
d  . paired data entries in the
n
dependent samples.

Three conditions are required to conduct the test.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 364

t-Test for the Difference Between
Means
1. The samples must be randomly selected.
2. The samples must be dependent (paired).
3. Both populations must be normally distributed.

If these conditions are met, then the sampling

d
distribution for is approximated by a t-distribution
with n – 1 degrees of freedom, where n is the
number of data pairs.

d
–t0 μd t0

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 365

 t-Test for the Difference Between
Means
μd .
The following symbols are used for the t-test for
Symb
Description
ol
n The number of pairs of data
d The difference between entries for a data pair, d =
μd x1 – x2
The hypothesized mean of the differences of paired
data in the population
d The mean of the differences between the paired
data entries in the dependent samples
d
d 
n
sd The standard deviation of the differences between
the paired data entries in the dependent samples
2
n( d 2)   d 
sd 
n(n  1)
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 366
t-Test for the Difference Between
Means
t-Test for the Difference Between Means
A t-test can be used to test the difference of two population
means when a sample is randomly selected from each
population. The requirements for performing the test are
that each population must be normal and each member of
the first sample must be paired with a member of the
second sample.
The test statistic
d is
d 
n

and the standardized

d  μd test statistic is
t .
sd n

The degrees of freedom are

d.f. = n – 1.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 367
t-Test for the Difference Between
Means
Using the t-Test for the Difference Between
Means (Dependent Samples)
In Words In Symbols
1. State the claim mathematically. State H0 and Ha.
Identify the null and
alternative hypotheses.
2. Specify the level of Identify .
significance.
d.f. = n – 1
3. Identify the degrees of freedom
and sketch the sampling
distribution.
Use Table 5 in
4. Determine the critical value(s). Appendix B.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 368
t-Test for the Difference Between
Means
Using a Two-Sample t-Test for the Difference
Between Means (Small Independent Samples)
In Words In Symbols
5. Determine the rejection
region(s). d
d sd . d 
6. Calculate and Use a table. n

n( d 2)  ( d )2
sd 
n(n  1)

d  μd
t
sd n
7. Find the standardized test
statistic.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 369

t-Test for the Difference Between
Means
Using a Two-Sample t-Test for the Difference
Between Means (Small Independent Samples)
In Words In Symbols
8. Make a decision to reject or If t is in the
fail to reject the null rejection region,
hypothesis. reject H0.
Otherwise, fail to
reject H0.

9. Interpret the decision in the

context of the original claim.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 370

t-Test for the Difference Between
Means
Example:
A reading center claims that students will perform
better on a standardized reading test after going
through the reading course offered by their center.
The table shows the reading scores of 6 students
before and after the course. At  = 0.05, is there
enough evidence to conclude that the students’
scores after the course are better than the scores
before Student
the course? 1 2 3 4 5 6
Score (before) 85 96 70 76 81 78
Score (after) 88 85 89 86 92 89
H0: d  0
Ha: d > 0 (Claim) Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 371
t-Test for the Difference Between
Means
Example continued: d.f. = 6 – 1 = 5
H0: d  0 =
0.05
Ha: d > 0 (Claim)
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
t
d = (score before) – (score after)
t0 = 2.015
Student 1 2 3 4 5 6
Score 85 96 70 76 81 78
(before)
Score (after) 88 85 89 86 92 89  d  43
2
d 3 11 19 10 11 11  d 833
d2 9 12 36 10 12 12
 d   43  7.167
1 1 0 1 1
d 
n 6

n( d 2)  ( d )2  6(833)  1849  104.967 10.245

sd  6(5)
n(n  1) Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 372
t-Test for the Difference Between
Means
Example continued:
H0: d  0
Ha: d > 0 (Claim)
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
t

t0 = 2.015
The standardized test statistic is
d  μd  7.167  0
t   1.714.
sd n 10.245 6

Fail to reject H0.

There is not enough evidence at the 5% level to
support the claim that the students’ scores after the
course are better than the scores before the course.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 373

§ 8.4
Testing the
Difference Between
Proportions
 Two Sample z-Test for
Proportions
A z-test is used to test the difference between two
population proportions, p1 and p2.

Three conditions are required to conduct the test.

1. The samples must be randomly selected.

2. The samples must be independent.
3. The samples must be large enough to use a
normal sampling distribution. That is,
n1p1  5, n1q1  5,
n2p2  5, and n2q2  5.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 375

 Two Sample z-Test for
Proportions
If these conditions are met, then the sampling
distribution for pˆ1  pˆ2 distribution with
is a normal
meanμ
pˆ  pˆ  p1  p2
1 2

and standard error

1 1 
σ pˆ  pˆ  pq    , where q 1  p.
1 2
 n1 n21 

A weighted estimate of p1 and p2 can be found by using

x1  x2
p , where x1 n1pˆ1 and x2 n2pˆ2.
n1  n2

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 376

 Two Sample z-Test for
Proportions
Two Sample z-Test for the Difference Between
Proportions
A two sample z-test is used to test the difference between
two population proportions p1 and p2 when a sample is
randomly selected from each population.
pˆ1  statistic
The test pˆ1 is

and the standardized

(pˆ  pˆ2)  (p1  p2) test statistic is
z 1
1 1
pq   
 n1 n2 

Note:
wherep  x1  x2 and q 1  p. n1p, n1q , n2p, and n2q
n1  n2
must be at least 5.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 377

 Two Sample z-Test for
Proportions
Using a Two-Sample z-Test for the Difference
Between Proportions
In Words In Symbols
1. State the claim. Identify the State H0 and Ha.
null and alternative
hypotheses.
Identify .
2. Specify the level of
Use Table 4 in
significance.
Appendix B.
3. Determine the critical value(s).

x1  x2
4. Determine the rejection p
n1  n2
region(s).
Continued.
5. Find the weighted estimate of
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 378
 Two Sample z-Test for
Proportions
Using a Two-Sample z-Test for the Difference
Between Proportions

In Words In Symbols
6. Find the standardized test z
(pˆ1  pˆ2)  (p1  p2)
statistic. 1 1
pq   
 n1 n2 

If z is in the
7. Make a decision to reject or fail rejection region,
to reject the null hypothesis. reject H0.
Otherwise, fail to
8. Interpret the decision in the
reject H0.
context of the original claim.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 379

 Two Sample z-Test for
Proportions
Example:
A recent survey stated that male college students
smoke less than female college students. In a survey
of 1245 male students, 361 said they smoke at least
one pack of cigarettes a day. In a survey of 1065
female students, 341 said they smoke at least one
pack a day. At  = 0.01, can you support the claim
that the proportion of male college students who
smoke at least one pack of cigarettes a day is lower
then the proportion of female college students who
smoke at least one pack a day?
H0: p1  p2 =
0.01
Ha: p1 < p2 (Claim) -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
z
z0 = 2.33 Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 380
 Two Sample z-Test for
Proportions
Example continued:
H0: p1  p2
Ha: p1 < p2 (Claim) -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
z
z0 = 2.33
x1  x2 n1pˆ1  n2pˆ2 361  341 702
p    0.304
n1  n2 n1  n2 1245  1065 2310
q 1  p 1  0.304 0.696

Because 1245(0.304), 1245(0.696), 1065(0.304), and

1065(0.696) are all at least 5, we can use a two-sample z-
test.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 381
 Two Sample z-Test for
Proportions
Example continued:
H0: p1  p2
Ha: p1 < p2 (Claim) z
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
z0 = 2.33

(pˆ1  pˆ2)  (p1  p2) (0.29  0.32)  0

z   1.56
1 1
pq   
 n1 n2 
(0.304)(0.696)
1


1
1245 1065 
Fail to reject H0.
There is not enough evidence at the 1% level to
support the claim that the proportion of male college
students who smoke is lower then the proportion of
female college students who smoke.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 382
Chapter 9

Correlation and
Regression
§ 9.1
Correlation
 Correlation
A correlation is a relationship between two variables. The
data can be represented by the ordered pairs (x, y) where
x is the independent (or explanatory) variable, and y is
the dependent (or response) variable.

A scatter plot can be used to determine y

whether a linear (straight line) correlation exists
between two variables. 2

x
Example: 2 4 6

x 1 2 3 4 5 –2

y –4 –2 –1 0 2
–4
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 385
 Linear Correlation
y y
As x As x
increases, y increases, y
tends to tends to
decrease. increase.

x x
Negative Linear Correlation Positive Linear Correlation
y y

x x
No Correlation Nonlinear Correlation
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 386
 Correlation Coefficient
The correlation coefficient is a measure of the
strength and the direction of a linear relationship
between two variables. The symbol r represents the
sample correlation coefficient. The formula for r is
n  xy   x  y 
r  .
2 2
n  x 2   x  n  y 2   y 

The range of the correlation coefficient is 1 to 1. If

x and y have a strong positive linear correlation, r
is close to 1. If x and y have a strong negative
linear correlation, r is close to 1. If there is no
linear correlation or a weak linear correlation, r is
close to 0.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 387
 Linear Correlation
y
y

r = 0.91 r = 0.88

x
x
Strong negative correlation
Strong positive correlation
y
y
r = 0.42
r = 0.07

x
x
Weak positive correlation
Nonlinear Correlation
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 388
 Calculating a Correlation
Coefficient
Calculating a Correlation Coefficient
In Words In Symbols
1. Find the sum of the x-values. x
2. Find the sum of the y-values. y
3. Multiply each x-value by its  xy
corresponding y-value and find the
sum.
4. Square each x-value and find the x2
sum.  y2
5. Square each y-value and find the n  xy   x  y 
r  .
sum. n  x   x 
2 2 2
n  y   y 
2

6. Use these five sums to calculate

the correlation coefficient. Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 389
 Correlation Coefficient
Example:
Calculate the correlation coefficient r for the
following
x data.y xy x2 y2
1 –3 –3 1 9
2 –1 –2 4 1
3 0 0 9 0
4 1 4 16 1
5 2 10 25 4
 x 15  y  1  xy 9  x 2 55  y 2 15

n  xy   x  y  5(9)  15 1

r  
2 2 2
n  x 2   x  n  y 2   y  5(55)  152 5(15)   1

60 There is a strong
 0.986
50 74 positive linear
correlation between x
and y.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 390
 Correlation Coefficient
Example:
The following data represents the number of hours
12 different students watched television during the
weekend and the scores of each student who took a
test the following Monday.
a.) Display the scatter plot.
b.) Calculate the correlation coefficient r.

Hours, x 0 1 2 3 3 5 5 5 6 7 7 10
Test score,
96 85 82 74 95 68 76 84 58 65 75 50
y

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 391
 Correlation Coefficient
Example continued:
Hours, x 0 1 2 3 3 5 5 5 6 7 7 10
Test score,
96 85 82 74 95 68 76 84 58 65 75 50
y
y
100
80
Test score

60
40
20
x
2 4 6 8 10
Hours watching TV
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 392
 Correlation Coefficient
Example continued:
Hours, x 0 1 2 3 3 5 5 5 6 7 7 10
Test score,
96 85 82 74 95 68 76 84 58 65 75 50
y
xy 0 85 164 222 285 340 380 420 348 455 525 500
x2 0 1 4 9 9 25 25 25 36 49 49 100
y2 9216 7225 6724 5476 9025 4624 5776 7056 3364 4225 5625 2500
 x 54  y 908  xy 3724  x 2 332  y 2 70836

n  xy   x  y  12(3724)  54908

r    0.831
2 2 2
n  x   x 
2
n  y   y 
2
12(332)  54 2
12(70836)  908

There is a strong negative linear correlation.

As the number of hours spent watching TV
increases, the test scores tend to decrease.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 393
 Testing a Population Correlation
Coefficient
Once the sample correlation coefficient r has been
calculated, we need to determine whether there is
enough evidence to decide that the population
correlation coefficient ρ is significant at a specified
level of significance.
One way to determine this is to use Table 11 in
Appendix B.
If |r| is greater than the critical value, there is enough
evidence to decide that the correlation coefficient ρ is
significant.
n  = 0.05  = 0.01
For a sample of size n
4 0.950 0.990
= 6, ρ is significant at
5 0.878 0.959
the 5% significance
6 0.811 0.917
level, if |r| > 0.811.
7 0.754 0.875
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 394
 Testing a Population Correlation
Coefficient
Finding the Correlation Coefficient ρ
In Words In Symbols
1. Determine the number of Determine n.
pairs of data in the sample.
2. Specify the level of Identify .
significance.
3. Find the critical value. Use Table 11 in Appendix
B.
4. Decide if the correlation is If |r| > critical value, the
significant. correlation is significant.
Otherwise, there is not
5. Interpret the decision in enough evidence to support
the context of the original that the correlation is
claim. significant.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 395
 Testing a Population Correlation
Coefficient
Example:
The following data represents the number of hours
12 different students watched television during the
weekend and the scores of each student who took a
test the following Monday.
The correlation coefficient r  0.831.

Hours, x 0 1 2 3 3 5 5 5 6 7 7 10
Test score,
96 85 82 74 95 68 76 84 58 65 75 50
y
Is the correlation coefficient significant at  = 0.01?

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 396
 Testing a Population Correlation
Coefficient
Example continued: Appendix B: Table 11
r  0.831 n  = 0.05  = 0.01
4 0.950 0.990
n = 12
5 0.878 0.959
 = 0.01 6 0.811 0.917

10 0.632 0.765
11 0.602 0.735
12 0.576 0.708 |r| > 0.708
13 0.553 0.684
Because, the population correlation is significant, there is
enough evidence at the 1% level of significance to conclude
that there is a significant linear correlation between the
number of hours of television watched during the weekend
and the scores of each student who took a test the following
Monday. Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 397
 Hypothesis Testing for ρ
A hypothesis test can also be used to determine
whether the sample correlation coefficient r provides
enough evidence to conclude that the population
correlation coefficient ρ is significant at a specified
level of significance.
A hypothesis test can be one tailed or two tailed.
H0: ρ  0 (no significant negative correlation)
Left-tailed test
Ha: ρ < 0 (significant negative
correlation)
H0: ρ  0 (no significant positive correlation)
Ha: ρ > 0 (significant positive
Right-tailed
test
correlation)
H0: ρ = 0 (no significant correlation)
Two-tailed test
Ha: ρ  0 (significant correlation)
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 398
 Hypothesis Testing for ρ

The t-Test for the Correlation Coefficient

A t-test can be used to test whether the
correlation between two variables is significant.
The test statistic is r and the standardized test
statisticr r
t 
σr 1 r2
n 2

follows a t-distribution with n – 2 degrees of

freedom.
In this text, only two-tailed hypothesis tests for ρ
are considered.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 399

 Hypothesis Testing for ρ
Using the t-Test for the Correlation Coefficient
ρ In Words In Symbols
1. State the null and State H0 and Ha.
alternative hypothesis.
2. Specify the level of Identify .
significance.
3. Identify the degrees of d.f. = n – 2
freedom.
4. Determine the critical Use Table 5 in Appendix B.
value(s) and rejection
region(s).

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 400

 Hypothesis Testing for ρ
Using the t-Test for the Correlation Coefficient
ρ In Words In Symbols
5. Find the standardized test r
t
statistic. 1 r2
n 2

6. Make a decision to reject If t is in the rejection

or fail to reject the null region, reject H0.
hypothesis. Otherwise fail to
reject H0.
7. Interpret the decision in
the context of the original
claim.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 401

 Hypothesis Testing for ρ
Example:
The following data represents the number of hours
12 different students watched television during the
weekend and the scores of each student who took a
test the following Monday.

The correlation coefficient r  0.831.

Hours, x 0 1 2 3 3 5 5 5 6 7 7 10
Test score,
96 85 82 74 95 68 76 84 58 65 75 50
y
Test the significance of this correlation coefficient
significant at  = 0.01?
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 402
 Hypothesis Testing for ρ
Example continued:
H0: ρ = 0 (no correlation) Ha: ρ  0 (significant
correlation)
The level of significance is  =
0.01.
Degrees of freedom are d.f. = 12 – 2 = 10.
The critical values are t0 = 3.169 and t0 =
3.169.
The standardized test statistic is
r  0.831 The test statistic falls
t 
2 2
1 r 1  ( 0.831) in the rejection region,
n 2 12  2
so H0 is rejected.
 4.72.
t
t0 = 3.169 0 t0 = 3.169

At the 1% level of significance, there is enough evidence to

conclude that there is a significant linear correlation between
the number of hours of TV watched over the weekend and the
test scores on Larson
Monday morning.
& Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 403
 Correlation and Causation
The fact that two variables are strongly correlated
does not in itself imply a cause-and-effect
relationship between the variables.
If there is a significant correlation between two
variables, you should consider the following
possibilities.
1. Is there a direct cause-and-effect relationship between
the variables?
Does x cause y?
2. Is there a reverse cause-and-effect relationship between
the variables?
Does y cause x?
3. Is it possible that the relationship between the variables
can be caused by a third variable or by a combination of
several other variables?
4. Is it possible that the relationship between two variables
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 404
§ 9.2
Linear Regression
 Residuals
After verifying that the linear correlation between
two variables is significant, next we determine the
equation of the line that can be used to predict the
value of y for a given value of x.
Observed
y
y-value

d2 For a given x-value,

d1
d = (observed y-value) – (predicted y-value)

Predicted d
3
y-value
x
Each data point di represents the difference between the
observed y-value and the predicted y-value for a given x-value on
the line. These differences are called residuals.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 406

 Regression Line
A regression line, also called a line of best fit, is
the line for which the sum of the squares of the
residuals is a minimum.
The Equation of a Regression Line
The equation of a regression line for an independent
variable x and a dependent variable y is
ŷ = mx + b
where ŷ is the predicted y-value for a given x-value.
The slope m and y-intercept b are given by
n  xy   x  y  y x
m and b y  mx   m
n  x 2   x 
2 n n
where y is the mean of the y- values and x is the mean of the
x - values. The regression line always passes through (x , y ).

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 407

 Regression Line
Example:
Find the equation of the regression line.
x y xy x2 y2
1 –3 –3 1 9
2 –1 –2 4 1
3 0 0 9 0
4 1 4 16 1
5 2 10 25 4
 x 15  y  1  xy 9  x 2 55  y 2 15

n  xy   x  y  5(9)  15 1 60

m   1.2
n  x 2   x 
2
5(55)  15
2 50
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 408
 Regression Line
Example continued:
1 15
b  y  mx   (1.2)  3.8
5 5
The equation of the regression line is
ŷ = 1.2x – 3.8. y
2
1
x
1 2 3 4 5
1
2  
(x , y )  3,
1
5
3

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 409

 Regression Line
Example:
The following data represents the number of hours
12 different students watched television during the
weekend and the scores of each student who took a
test the following Monday.
a.) Find the equation of the regression line.
b.) Use the equation to find the expected test
score for a student who watches 9 hours of
Hours, x TV. 0 1 2 3 3 5 5 5 6 7 7 10
Test score,
96 85 82 74 95 68 76 84 58 65 75 50
y
xy 0 85 164 222 285 340 380 420 348 455 525 500
x2 0 1 4 9 9 25 25 25 36 49 49 100
y2 9216 7225 6724 5476 9025 4624 5776 7056 3364 4225 5625 2500
 x 54  y 908  xy 3724  x 2 332  y 2 70836
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 410
 Regression Line
Example continued:
n  xy   x  y  12(3724)  54908
m 2
 2
 4.067
n  x   x 
2
12(332)  54
y
b  y  mx 100 (x , y )  1254 ,908
12 
4.5,75.7
908 54
  ( 4.067) 80
12 12
Test score 60
93.97
40
20
ŷ = –4.07x + 93.97
x
2 4 6 8 10
Hours watching TV
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 411
 Regression Line
Example continued:
Using the equation ŷ = –4.07x + 93.97, we can
predict the test score for a student who watches 9
hours of TV.
ŷ = –4.07x + 93.97
= –4.07(9) + 93.97
= 57.34

A student who watches 9 hours of TV over the

weekend can expect to receive about a 57.34 on
Monday’s test.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 412

§ 9.3
Measures of
Regression and
Prediction
Intervals
 Variation About a
Regression Line
To find the total variation, you must first calculate the
total deviation, the explained deviation, and the
unexplained deviation.
Total deviation  y i  y
Explained deviation  yˆi  y
Unexplained deviation  y i  yˆi
y (xi, yi)
Unexplaine
Total d deviation
y i  yˆi
deviation
yi  y
(xi, ŷi) Explained
y
deviation
(xi, yi) yˆi  y

x
x
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 414
 Variation About a
Regression Line
The total variation about a regression line is the sum of
the squares of the differences between the y-value of
each ordered pair and the mean of y.
2
Total variation  y i  y 
The explained variation is the sum of the squares of
the differences between each predicted y-value and the
mean of y.
Explained variation  yˆ  y 
2
i

The unexplained variation is the sum of the squares of

the differences between the y-value of each ordered pair
and Unexplained
each corresponding
variationpredicted
 y  yˆy-value.
2 i i

Total variation Explained variation  Unexplained variation

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 415

 Coefficient of
Determination
The coefficient of determination r2 is the ratio of
the explained variation to the total variation. That is,
Explained variation
r2 
Total variation

Example:
The correlation coefficient for the data that
represents the number of hours students watched
television and the test scores of each student is r 
0.831. Find the coefficient of determination.
r 2 ( 0.831)2 About 69.1% of the variation in the
test scores can be explained by the
0.691
variation in the hours of TV watched.
About 30.9% of the variation is
unexplained.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 416
 The Standard Error of
Estimate
When a ŷ-value is predicted from an x-value, the
prediction is a point estimate.
An interval can also be constructed.
The standard error of estimate se is the standard deviation of the observed yi -values about the predicted
ŷ-value for a given xi -value. It is given by

where n is the number of ordered pairs in the data set.

(y i  yˆi )2
se 
n 2

The closer the observed y-values are to the predicted y-

values, the smaller the standard error of estimate will
be. Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 417
 The Standard Error of
Estimate
Finding the Standard Error of Estimate
In Words In Symbols
1. Make a table that includes the x i , y i , yˆi , (y i  yˆi ),
column heading shown. (y i  yˆi )2
2. Use the regression equation to yˆ mx i  b
calculate the predicted y-
values. (y i  yˆi )2
3. Calculate the sum of the
squares of the differences
between each observed y-
value and the corresponding
(y i  yˆi )2
predicted y-value. se 
n 2
4. Find the standard error of
estimate.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 418
 The Standard Error of
Estimate
Example:
The regression equation for the following data is
ŷ = 1.2x – 3.8.
Find the standard error of estimate.
xi yi ŷi (yi – ŷi )2
1 –3 – 2.6 0.16
2 –1 – 1.4 0.16
3 0 – 0.2 0.04
4 1 1 0
5 2 2.2 0.04 Unexplained
 0.4
variation
(y i  yˆi )2 0.4
se   0.365
n 2 5 2
The standard deviation of the predicted y value for a
given x value is about 0.365.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 419
 The Standard Error of
Estimate
Example:
The regression equation for the data that
represents the number of hours 12 different
students watched television during the weekend
and the scores of each student who took a test the
following Monday is
ŷ = –4.07x + 93.97.
Find the
Hours, x standard0error1 of estimate.
2 3 3 5
i
Test score, yi 96 85 82 74 95 68
ŷi 93.97 89.9 85.83 81.76 81.76 73.62
(yi – ŷi)2 4.12 24.01 14.67 60.22 175.3 31.58
Hours, xi 5 5 6 7 7 10
Test score, yi 76 84 58 65 75 50
ŷi 73.62 73.62 69.55 65.48 65.48 53.27
Continued.
(yi – ŷi)2 5.66 107.74 133.4 0.23 90.63 10.69
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 420
 The Standard Error of
Estimate
Example continued:

(y i  yˆi )2 658.25

Unexplained
variation

(y i  yˆi )2 658.25 8.11

se  
n 2 12  2

The standard deviation of the student test scores

for a specific number of hours of TV watched is
about 8.11.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 421

 Prediction Intervals
Two variables have a bivariate normal distribution if for any fixed value of
x, the corresponding values of y are normally distributed and for any fixed
values of y, the corresponding x-values are normally distributed.
A prediction interval can be constructed for the true value of y.

Given a linear regression equation ŷ = mx + b and x0, a

specific value of x, a c-prediction interval for y is
ŷ–E<y<ŷ +E
where 2
1 n(x0  x )
E tcse 1   .
n n  x 2  ( x )2

The point estimate is ŷ and the margin of error is E.

The probability that the prediction interval contains y
is c.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 422
 Prediction Intervals
Construct a Prediction Interval for y for a Specific
Value of x
In Words In Symbols
1. Identify the number of ordered d.f. n  2
pairs in the data set n and the
degrees of freedom.
2. Use the regression equation yˆ mx i  b
and the given x-value to find
the point estimate ŷ.
3. Find the critical value tc that Use Table 5 in
corresponds to the given level Appendix B.
of confidence c.

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 423
 Prediction Intervals
Construct a Prediction Interval for y for a Specific
Value of x
In Words In Symbols
4. Find the standard error (y i  yˆi )2
of estimate se. se 
n 2

5. Find the margin of error 1 n(x0  x )2

E tcse 1  
E. n n  x 2  ( x )2

Left endpoint: ŷ – E
6. Find the left and right Right endpoint: ŷ + E
endpoints and form the Interval: ŷ – E < y < ŷ +
prediction interval. E

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 424

 Prediction Intervals
Example:
The following data represents the number of hours
12 different students watched television during the
weekend and the scores of each student who took a
test the following Monday.

Hours, x 0 1 2 3 3 5 5 5 6 7 7 10
Test score,
96 85 82 74 95 68 76 84 58 65 75 50
y
ŷ = –4.07x + 93.97 se  8.11

Construct a 95% prediction interval for the test

scores when 4 hours of TV are watched.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 425
 Prediction Intervals
Example continued:
Construct a 95% prediction interval for the test
scores when the number of hours of TV watched is
4.
There are n – 2 = 12 – 2 = 10 degrees of freedom.
The point estimate is
ŷ = –4.07x + 93.97
= –4.07(4) + 93.97
= 77.69.
The critical value tc = 2.228, and se = 8.11.
ŷ–E<y< ŷ+E
77.69 – 8.11 = 69.58 77.69+ 8.11 = 85.8
You can be 95% confident that when a student
watches 4 hours of TV over the weekend, the
student’s test grade will be between 69.58 and 85.8.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 426
§ 9.4
Multiple
Regression
 Multiple Regression
Equation
In many instances, a better prediction can be found for a dependent (response) variable by
using more than one independent (explanatory) variable.
For example, a more accurate prediction of Monday’s test grade from the previous section
might be made by considering the number of other classes a student is taking as well as the
student’s previous knowledge of the test material.

A multiple regression equation has the form

ŷ = b + m1x1 + m2x2 + m3x3 + … + mkxk
where x1, x2, x3,…, xk are independent variables, b is
the y-intercept, and y is the dependent variable.
* Because the mathematics associated with this concept is
complicated, technology is generally used to calculate the
multiple regression equation.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 428
 Predicting y-Values
After finding the equation of the multiple regression
line, you can use the equation to predict y-values over the
range of the data.
Example:
The following multiple regression equation can be used to
predict the annual U.S. rice yield (in pounds).
ŷ = 859 + 5.76x1 + 3.82x2
where x1 is the number of acres planted (in thousands),
and x2 is the number of acres harvested (in thousands).
(Source: U.S. National Agricultural Statistics
Service)
a.) Predict the annual rice yield when x1 = 2758, and x2 =
2714. Continued.
b.) Predict the annual
Larson & Farber, rice yield
Elementary when
Statistics: xthe
Picturing 1 = 3581,
World, 3e and x2 = 429
 Predicting y-Values
Example continued:

a.) ŷ = 859 + 5.76x1 + 3.82x2

= 859 + 5.76(2758) + 3.82(2714)
= 27,112.56
The predicted annual rice yield is 27,1125.56 pounds.

b.) ŷ = 859 + 5.76x1 + 3.82x2

= 859 + 5.76(3581) + 3.82(3021)
= 33,025.78
The predicted annual rice yield is 33,025.78 pounds.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 430

Chapter 10
Chi-Square Tests
and the F-
Distribution
§
10.1
Goodness of Fit
 Multinomial Experiments
A multinomial experiment is a probability experiment
consisting of a fixed number of trials in which there are more than
two possible outcomes for each independent trial. (Unlike the
binomial experiment in which there were only two possible
outcomes.)

Example:
A researcher claims that the distribution of favorite
pizza toppings among teenagers is as shown below.
Topping Frequency, f
Each outcome is Cheese 41% The probability for
classified into Pepperoni 25% each possible
categories. Sausage 15% outcome is fixed.
Mushrooms 10%
Onions 9%
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 433
Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit
Test
A Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test is used to test whether
a frequency distribution fits an expected distribution.
To calculate the test statistic for the chi-square goodness-of-
fit test, the observed frequencies and the expected
frequencies are used.
The observed frequency O of a category is the frequency for the category observed in the sample data.
The expected frequency E of a category is the calculated frequency for the category. Expected frequencies are obtained assuming the specified (or
hypothesized) distribution. The expected frequency for the ith category is
Ei = npi
where n is the number of trials (the sample size) and pi is the assumed probability of the ith category.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 434

 Observed and Expected
Frequencies
Example:
200 teenagers are randomly selected and asked what their favorite
pizza topping is. The results are shown below.
Find the observed frequencies and the expected
frequencies.

Topping Results % of Observed Expected

(n = teenager Frequenc Frequency
200) s y 200(0.41) = 82
Cheese 78 41% 78 200(0.25) = 50
Pepperoni 52 25% 52 200(0.15) = 30
Sausage 30 15% 30 200(0.10) = 20
Mushroom 25 10% 25 200(0.09) = 18
s 15
Onions 15 9%
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 435
Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit
Test
For the chi-square goodness-of-fit test to be used, the following
must be true.
1. The observed frequencies must be obtained by using a
random sample.
2. Each expected frequency must be greater than or equal to 5.

The Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test

If the conditions listed above are satisfied, then the sampling
distribution for the goodness-of-fit test is approximated by a chi-
square distribution with k – 1 degrees of freedom, where k is the
number of categories. The test statistic for the chi-square
goodness-of-fit test is 2
(O  E ) The test is always a
χ 2  right-tailed test.
E
where O represents the observed frequency of each category
and E represents the expected frequency of each category.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 436
Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit
Test
Performing a Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test
In Words In Symbols
1. Identify the claim. State the State H0 and Ha.
null and alternative
hypotheses.
Identify .
2. Specify the level of
significance. d.f. = k – 1

3. Identify the degrees of Use Table 6 in

freedom. Appendix B.

4. Determine the critical value.

Continued.
5. Determine the
Larson rejection
& Farber, region.
Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 437
Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit
Test
Performing a Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test
In Words In Symbols
6. Calculate the test statistic. 2 (O  E )2
χ 
E

7. Make a decision to reject or If χ2 is in the

fail to reject the null rejection region,
hypothesis. reject H0.
Otherwise, fail to
reject H0.
8. Interpret the decision in the
context of the original claim.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 438

Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit
Test
Example:
A researcher claims that the distribution of favorite
pizza toppings among teenagers is as shown below.
200 randomly selected teenagers are surveyed.
Topping Frequency, f
Cheese 39%
Pepperoni 26%
Sausage 15%
Mushrooms 12.5%
Onions 7.5%

Using  = 0.01, and the observed and expected

values previously calculated, test the surveyor’s
claim using a chi-square goodness-of-fit test.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 439
Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit
Test
Example continued:
H0: The distribution of pizza toppings is 39% cheese,
26% pepperoni, 15% sausage, 12.5%
mushrooms, and 7.5% onions. (Claim)
Ha: The distribution of pizza toppings differs from
the claimed or expected distribution.

Because there are 5 categories, the chi-square

distribution has k – 1 = 5 – 1 = 4 degrees of freedom.

With d.f. = 4 and  = 0.01, the critical value is χ20 =

13.277.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 440
Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit
Test
Example continued:
Topping Observed Expected
Rejectio Frequenc Frequenc
n region
y y
 0.01 Cheese 78 82
Pepperoni 52 50
X2 Sausage 30 30
χ20 = 13.277 Mushroom 25 20
s
2 Onions
(O  E )2 (78  82)2 (52  50)2
(30  30)2 (2515 18
 20)2 (15  18)2
χ      
E 82 50 30 20 18
2.025
Fail to reject H0.
There is not enough evidence at the 1% level to
reject the surveyor’s claim.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 441
§
10.2
Independence
 Contingency Tables
An r  c contingency table shows the observed
frequencies for two variables. The observed
frequencies are arranged in r rows and c columns.
The intersection of a row and a column is called a cell.

The following contingency table shows a random

sample of 321 fatally injured passenger vehicle
drivers by age and gender. (Adapted from Insurance
Institute for Highway Safety)
Age
Gender 16 – 20 21 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 51 – 60 61 and older
Male 32 51 52 43 28 10
Female 13 22 33 21 10 6

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 443

 Expected Frequency
Assuming the two variables are independent, you can
use the contingency table to find the expected
frequency for each cell.

Finding the Expected Frequency for Contingency

Table Cells
The expected frequency for a cell Er,c in a contingency
table is frequency E (Sum of row r ) (Sum of column c).
Expected r ,c Sample size

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 444

 Expected Frequency
Example:
Find the expected frequency for each “Male” cell in the
contingency table for the sample of 321 fatally injured
drivers. Assume that the variables, age and gender, are
independent.
Age
Gende 16 – 21 – 31 – 41 – 51 – 61 and Total
r 20 30 40 50 60 older
Male 32 51 52 43 28 10 216
Female 13 22 33 21 10 6 105
Total 45 73 85 64 38 16 321

Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 445
 Expected Frequency
Example continued:
Age
Gender 16 – 20 21 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 51 – 60 61 and Total
older
Male 32 51 52 43 28 10 216
Female 13 22 33 21 10 6 105
Total 45 73 85 64 38 16 321

(Sum of row r ) (Sum of column c)

Expected frequency E r ,c 
Sample size
216 45 216 73 216 85
E 1,1  30.28 E 1,2  49.12 E 1,3  57.20
321 321 321

216 64 216 38 216 16

E 1,4  43.07 E 1,5  25.57 E 1,6  10.77
321 321 321

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 446

 Chi-Square Independence
Test
A chi-square independence test is used to test the
independence of two variables. Using a chi-square test,
you can determine whether the occurrence of one variable
affects the probability of the occurrence of the other
variable.

For the chi-square independence test to be used, the

following must be true.
1. The observed frequencies must be obtained by using a
random sample.
2. Each expected frequency must be greater than or equal to 5.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 447

Chi-Square Independence
Test
The Chi-Square Independence Test
If the conditions listed are satisfied, then the
sampling distribution for the chi-square independence
test is approximated by a chi-square distribution with
(r – 1)(c – 1)
degrees of freedom, where r and c are the number of
rows and columns, respectively, of a contingency
table. The test statistic for the chi-square
independence test is 2 The test is always a
(O  E )
χ 2  right-tailed test.
E

where O represents the observed frequencies and E

represents the expected frequencies.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 448
Chi-Square Independence
Test
Performing a Chi-Square Independence Test
In Words In Symbols
1. Identify the claim. State the State H0 and Ha.
null and alternative
hypotheses.
Identify .
2. Specify the level of
significance. d.f. = (r – 1)(c –
1)
3. Identify the degrees of Use Table 6 in
freedom. Appendix B.

4. Determine the critical value.

Continued.
5. Determine the
Larson rejection
& Farber, region.
Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 449
Chi-Square Independence
Test
Performing a Chi-Square Independence Test
In Words In Symbols
6. Calculate the test statistic. 2 (O  E )2
χ 
E

7. Make a decision to reject or If χ2 is in the

fail to reject the null rejection region,
hypothesis. reject H0.
Otherwise, fail to
reject H0.
8. Interpret the decision in the
context of the original claim.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 450

 Chi-Square Independence
Test
Example:
The following contingency table shows a random
sample of 321 fatally injured passenger vehicle
drivers by age and gender. The expected
frequencies are displayed in parentheses. At  =
0.05, can you conclude that the drivers’ ages are
related to gender in such accidents?
Age
Gende 16 – 21 – 31 – 51 –41 – 61 and Total
r 20 30 40 60 50 older
Male 32 51 52 43 28 10 216
(30.28) (49.12) (57.20) (43.07) (25.57) (10.77)
Femal 13 22 33 21 10 6 105
e (14.72) (23.88) (27.80) (20.93) (12.43) (5.23)
45 73 85 64 38 16 321
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 451
Chi-Square Independence
Test
Example continued:
Because each expected frequency is at least 5 and
the drivers were randomly selected, the chi-square
independence test can be used to test whether the
variables are independent.
H0: The drivers’ ages are independent of gender.
Ha: The drivers’ ages are dependent on gender.
(Claim)
d.f. = (r – 1)(c – 1) = (2 – 1)(6 – 1) = (1)(5) =
5
With d.f. = 5 and  = 0.05, the critical value is χ20 =
11.071.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 452
 Chi-Square Independence
Test
Example continued: O E O–E (O – E)2 (O  E )2
Rejectio
E
32 30.28 1.72 2.9584 0.0977
n region
51 49.12 1.88 3.5344 0.072
 0.05 52 57.20 5.2 27.04 0.4727
43 43.07 0.07 0.0049 0.0001
X2 28 25.57 2.43 5.9049 0.2309
10 10.77 0.77 0.5929 0.0551
χ20 = 11.071
13 14.72 1.72 2.9584 0.201
(O  E )2 22 23.88 1.88 3.5344 0.148
2
χ  2.84 33 27.80 5.2 27.04 0.9727
E
21 20.93 0.07 0.0049 0.0002
Fail to reject H0. 10 12.43 2.43 5.9049 0.4751
6 5.23 0.77 0.5929 0.1134

There is not enough evidence at the 5% level to

conclude that age is dependent on gender in such
accidents.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 453
§
10.3
Comparing Two
Variances
 F-Distribution
Let s12 and s22 represent the sample variances of two
different populations. If both populations are normal
σ12 and σ22
and the population variances are equal,
then the sampling distribution of
s12
F  2
s2
is called an F-distribution.
There are several properties of this distribution.
1. The F-distribution is a family of curves each of which is
determined by two types of degrees of freedom: the
degrees of freedom corresponding to the variance in
the numerator, denoted d.f.N, and the degrees of
freedom corresponding to the variance in the Continued.
denominator, denoted d.f.D.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 455
 F-Distribution
Properties of the F-distribution continued:
2. F-distributions are positively skewed.
3. The total area under each curve of an F-distribution is
equal to 1.
4. F-values are always greater than or equal to 0.
5. For all F-distributions, the mean value of F is
approximately equal to 1.

d.f.N = 1 and d.f.D = 8

d.f.N = 8 and d.f.D = 26
d.f.N = 16 and d.f.D = 7
d.f.N = 3 and d.f.D = 11

F
1 2 3 4

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 456

 Critical Values for the F-
Distribution
Finding Critical Values for the F-Distribution
1. Specify the level of significance .
2. Determine the degrees of freedom for the numerator,
d.f.N.
3. Determine the degrees of freedom for the denominator,
d.f.D.
4. Use Table 7 in Appendix B to find the critical value. If
the hypothesis test is 1
b. two-tailed, use the 2  F-table.
a. one-tailed, use the  F-table.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 457

 Critical Values for the F-
Distribution
Example:
Find the critical F-value for a right-tailed test when
 = 0.05, d.f.N = 5 and d.f.D = 28.
Appendix B: Table 7: F-Distribution
d.f.D:  = 0.05
Degrees of d.f.N: Degrees of freedom, numerator
freedom,
denominator

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 161.4 199.5 215.7 224.6 230.2 234.0
27
2 4.21 19.00
18.51 3.35 2.96
19.16 2.73
19.25 2.57
19.30 2.46
19.33
28 4.20 3.34 2.95 2.71 2.56 2.45
29 4.18 3.33 2.93 2.70 2.55 2.43

The critical value is F0 = 2.56.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 458

 Critical Values for the F-
Distribution
Example:
Find the critical F-value for a two-tailed 1 1
 = (0.10) = 0.05
test when  = 0.10, d.f.N = 4 and d.f.D = 2 2

6. Appendix B: Table 7: F-Distribution

d.f.D:  = 0.05
Degrees of d.f.N: Degrees of freedom, numerator
freedom,
denominator

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 161.4 199.5 215.7 224.6 230.2 234.0
2 18.51 19.00 19.16 19.25 19.30 19.33
3 10.13 9.55 9.28 9.12 9.01 8.94
4 7.71 6.94 6.59 6.39 6.26 6.16
5 6.61 5.79 5.41 5.19 5.05 4.95
The critical
6 value 5.99is F5.14
0 = 4.53. 4.76 4.53 4.39 4.28
7 Larson5.59
& Farber, 4.74 4.35 Picturing
Elementary Statistics: 4.12the World,
3.973e 3.87 459
 Two-Sample F-Test for
Variances
Two-Sample F-Test for Variances
A two-sample F-test is used to compare two
population σ12variances
and σ22 when a sample is
randomly selected from each population. The
populations must be independent and normally
distributed.
s12 The test statistic is
F  2
s2
s12 and s22
s12 s22.
where represent the sample variances with
The degrees of freedom for the numerator is
d.f.N = n1 – 1 and the degrees of freedom for the
2
s
denominator is d.f.D = n12 – 1, where n1 is the size of
2
the sample having s2. variance and n2 is the size of
the sample Larson
having variance
& Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 460
 Two-Sample F-Test for
Variances
σ12 and σ22
Using a Two-Sample F-Test to Compare
In Words In Symbols
1. Identify the claim. State the State H0 and Ha.
null and alternative
hypotheses.
Identify .
2. Specify the level of
significance. d.f.N = n1 – 1
d.f.D = n2 – 1
3. Identify the degrees of
freedom. Use Table 7 in
Appendix B.

Continued.
4. Determine the critical value.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 461
 Two-Sample F-Test for
Variances
σ12 and σ22
Using a Two-Sample F-Test to Compare
In Words In Symbols
5. Determine the rejection
region. s12
F  2
6. Calculate the test statistic. s2

If F is in the
7. Make a decision to reject or rejection region,
fail to reject the null reject H0.
hypothesis. Otherwise, fail to
reject H0.

8. Interpret the decision in the

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 462
 Two-Sample F-Test
Example:
A travel agency’s marketing brochure indicates that
the standard deviations of hotel room rates for two
cities are the same. A random sample of 13 hotel
room rates in one city has a standard deviation of
$27.50 and a random sample of 16 hotel room rates
in the other city has a standard deviation of $29.75.
Can you reject the agency’s claim at  = 0.01?
s12=885.06 and s22 756.25.
Because 29.75 > 27.50,
H0: σ12  σ22 (Claim)
Ha: σ12  σ22
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 463
 Two-Sample F-Test
Example continued:
1 1
This is a two-tailed test with 2=
( 0.01) = 0.005, d.f.N
2
= 15 and d.f.D = 12.
The critical value is F0 = 4.72.
1
 0.005
2 The test statistic is
s12 885.06
F F  2 1.17.
1 2 3 4
F0 = 4.72 s2 756.25

Fail to reject H0.

There is not enough evidence at the 1% level to
reject the claim that the standard deviation of the
hotel room rates for the two cities are the same.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 464
§
10.4
Analysis of
Variance
 One-Way ANOVA
One-way analysis of variance is a hypothesis-testing
technique that is used to compare means from three
or more populations. Analysis of variance is usually
abbreviated ANOVA.

In a one-way ANOVA test, the following must be true.

1. Each sample must be randomly selected from a normal, or approximately normal,
population.
2. The samples must be independent of each other.
3. Each population must have the same variance.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 466

 One-Way ANOVA
Variance between samples
Test statistic 
Variance within samples

1. The variance between samples MSB measures the differences related to the treatment given to
each sample and is sometimes called the mean square between.
2. The variance within samples MSW measures the differences related to entries within the same
sample. This variance, sometimes called the mean square within, is usually due to sampling
error.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 467

 One-Way ANOVA
One-Way Analysis of Variance Test
If the conditions listed are satisfied, then the
sampling distribution for the test is approximated
by the F-distribution. The test statistic is
MS B
F  .
MSW

The degrees of freedom for the F-test are

d.f.N = k – 1
and
d.f.D = N – k
where k is the number of samples and N is the sum
of the sample sizes.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 468
 Test Statistic for a One-Way
ANOVA
Finding the Test Statistic for a One-Way
ANOVA Test
In Words In Symbols
1. Find the mean and variance x 2 (x  x )2
x s 
of each sample. n n 1

2. Find the mean of all entries x

x
in all samples (the grand N
mean).
SS B  ni (x i  x )2
3. Find the sum of squares
between the samples.
SSW (ni  1)si2
4. Find the sum of squares
within the samples. Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 469
 Test Statistic for a One-Way
ANOVA
Finding the Test Statistic for a One-Way
ANOVA Test
In Words In Symbols
5. Find the variance between SS B SS B
MS B  
the samples. k  1 d.f.N

6. Find the variance within SSW SS

MSW   W
the samples N  k d.f.D

7. Find the test statistic. MS B

F 
MSW

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 470

Performing a One-Way ANOVA
Test
Performing a One-Way Analysis of Variance
Test
In Words In Symbols
1. Identify the claim. State the State H0 and Ha.
null and alternative
hypotheses.
Identify .
2. Specify the level of
significance. d.f.N = k – 1
d.f.D = N – k
3. Identify the degrees of
freedom. Use Table 7 in
Appendix B.
Continued.
4. Determine the critical value.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 471
Performing a One-Way ANOVA
Test
Performing a One-Way Analysis of Variance
Test
In Words In Symbols
5. Determine the rejection
region.
MS B
6. Calculate the test statistic. F 
MSW

If F is in the
7. Make a decision to reject or rejection region,
fail to reject the null reject H0.
hypothesis. Otherwise, fail to
reject H0.

8. Interpret the decision in the

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 472
 ANOVA Summary Table
A table is a convenient way to summarize the results
in a one-way ANOVA test.

Sum of Degrees
Mean
Variation square of F
squares
s freedom

SS B
Between SSB d.f.N MS B  MS B MSW
d.f.N

SSW
Within SSW d.f.D MSW 
d.f.D

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 473

Performing a One-Way ANOVA
Test
Example:
The following table shows the salaries of randomly
selected individuals from four large metropolitan
areas. At  = 0.05, can you conclude that the mean
salary is different in at least one of the areas?
(Adapted from US Bureau of Economic Analysis)

Pittsburg Dallas Chicago Minneapo

h lis
27,800 30,000 32,000 30,000
28,000 33,900 35,800 40,000
25,500 29,750 28,000 35,000
29,150 25,000 38,900 33,000
30,295 34,055 27,245 29,805
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 474
 Performing a One-Way ANOVA
Test
Example continued:
H0: μ1 = μ2 = μ3 = μ4
Ha: At least one mean is different from the others. (Claim)

Because there are k = 4 samples, d.f.N = k – 1 = 4 – 1 = 3.

The sum of the sample sizes is

N = n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 = 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 = 20.

d.f.D = N – k = 20 – 4 = 16

Using  = 0.05, d.f.N = 3, and d.f.D = 16,

the critical value is F0 = 3.24.
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 475
Performing a One-Way ANOVA
Test
Example continued:
To find the test statistic, the following must be
calculated.
 x 140745  152705  161945  167805
x  31160
N 20
SS B  n (x  x )2
MS B   i i
d.f.N k1
5(28149  31160)2  5(30541  31160)2
 
4 1
5(32389  31160)2  5(33561  31160)2
4 1
27874206.67
Continued.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 476
Performing a One-Way ANOVA
Test
Example continued:
SSW (ni  1)si2
MSW  
d.f.D N  k
(5  1)(3192128.94)  (5  1)(13813030.08)
 
20  4
(5  1)(24975855.83)  (5  1)(17658605.02)
20  4
14909904.97 Test Critical
statistic value
MS B 27874206.67 1.870
F   1.870 < 3.24.
MSW 14909904.34
Fail to reject H0.
There is not enough evidence at the 5% level to conclude
that the mean salary is different in at least one of the
areas.
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 477