HARDWARE

UNIT-3
GRADES 9-10 IGCSE
Topic wise coverage of the chapter
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
also known as a microprocessor or processor

has the responsibility for the execution or

processing of all the instructions and data in a
computer application

installed as an integrated circuit on a single

microchip
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE

In the mid-1940s, John von Neumann

developed the concept of the ‘stored
program computer’, which has been
the basis of computer architecture
ever since.
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE

✔the concept of a central processing unit (CPU or

processor)
✔the CPU was able to access the memory directly
✔computer memories could store programs as
well as data
✔stored programs were made up of instructions
which could be executed in sequential order
COMPONENTS OF THE
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

✔ Arithmetic & Logic Unit

(ALU)
✔ Control Unit (CU)
✔ System Clock
✔ Registers
COMPONENTS OF THE
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
✔ Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
○allows the required arithmetic
(e.g. +, - and shifting) or logic
(e.g. AND, OR) operations to be
carried out while a program is
being run
○Multiplication and division are
carried out by a sequence of
addition, subtraction and left or
right logical shift operations
COMPONENTS OF THE
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
✔ Control Unit (CU)
○Ensures synchronization of data
flow and program instructions
throughout the computer
COMPONENTS OF THE
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
✔ System Clock
○is used to produce timing signals
on the control bus to ensure
synchronisation of data flow and
program instructions.
COMPONENTS OF THE
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
✔ Role of RAM
○RAM holds all the data and programs
needed to be accessed by the CPU
○often referred to as the Immediate
Access Store (IAS)
○CPU takes data and programs held in
backing store (e.g. a hard disk drive)
and puts them into RAM temporarily
○Done to speed up operations
COMPONENTS OF THE
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
✔ CPU Registers
○Special memory locations
inside the CPU
○General purpose or Specific
use registers
 SPECIAL PURPOSE REGISTERS

(Functions of different registers explained in detail in the Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle)

SYSTEM BUSES AND MEMORY
SYSTEM BUSES AND MEMORY

✔ buses are used to connect

the CPU to the memory and
to input/ output devices
✔ (System) buses are used in
computers as parallel
transmission components;
each wire in the bus
transmits one bit of data.
SYSTEM BUSES AND MEMORY

✔Address Bus
○the address bus carries
addresses throughout the
computer system
○Between the CPU and memory,
the address bus is
unidirectional (i.e. bits can
travel in one direction only)
○The wider the bus, the more
memory locations that can be
directly addressed at any given
SYSTEM BUSES AND MEMORY

✔Data Bus
○data bus is bidirectional (allowing
data to be sent in both directions
along the bus).
○As with the address bus, the width
of the data bus is important; the
wider the bus the larger the word
length that can be transported. (A
word is a group of bits which can
be regarded as a single unit e.g.
16-bit, 32-bit or 64-bit word
SYSTEM BUSES AND MEMORY

✔Control Bus
○control bus is also
bidirectional.
○carries signals from the
control unit (CU) to all the
other computer components.
○It is usually 8-bits wide.
There is no real need for it to
be any wider since it only
carries control signals.
SYSTEM BUSES AND MEMORY

1. Memory is a list of locations

2. Each location has an address and stores some
content
SYSTEM BUSES AND MEMORY

1. READ operation
2. WRITE operation
FETCH-DECODE-EXECUTE CYCLE
REGISTERS
FETCH PHASE
●the next instruction is
fetched from the memory
address currently stored in
the MAR and the instruction
is stored in the MDR
●contents of the MDR are
then copied to the Current
Instruction Register (CIR)
●PC is then incremented
(increased by 1) so that the
next instruction can be then
be processed
DECODE CYCLE

Decode phase
instruction is then
decoded so that it can
be interpreted in the
next part of the cycle
EXECUTE CYCLE

Execute phase
a set of control signals is
passed to the appropriate
components within the
computer system so that
each instruction can be
carried out in its logical
sequence
FACTORS AFFECTING CPU PERFORMANCE
1. SYSTEM CLOCK
●It defines the clock cycle that
synchronises all computer operations.

●By increasing clock speed, the

processing speed of the computer is
also increased (a typical current value
is 3.5 GHz – which means 3.5 billion
clock cycles a second).
OVERCLOCKING

Overclocking - using a clock speed higher than the

computer was designed for can lead to problems such as
●can lead to serious overheating of the CPU
●can lead to seriously unsynchronised operations (i.e. an
instruction is unable to complete in time before the next
one is due to be executed) – the computer would
frequently crash and become unstable
FACTORS AFFECTING CPU PERFORMANCE
2. WIDTH OF THE ADDRESS DATA BUS

The wider the bus, more the memory locations that can
be addressed at any given time directly.
FACTORS AFFECTING CPU PERFORMANCE
3. CACHE MEMORY
●Cache memory is located within the
CPU itself, which means it has much
faster data access times than RAM
●Stores frequently used instructions and
data that need to be accessed faster,
which improves CPU performance.
●When a CPU wishes to read memory, it
will first check out the cache and then
move on to main memory/RAM if the
required data isn’t there.
●Larger the cache memory size the
better the CPU performance
FACTORS AFFECTING CPU PERFORMANCE
4. CORES

●Multiple CPU cores - dual core

(the CPU is made up of two cores)
or quad core (the CPU is made up
of four cores)
●The use of a different number of
cores can improve computer
performance.
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

A combination of hardware and software

which is designed to carry out a specific set
of functions

The hardware is electronic, electrical or

electro-mechanical.

Uses a Microprocessor or Microcontroller or

System on Chips (SoC)
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Microcontrollers - this has a CPU in addition to some RAM
and ROM and other peripherals all embedded onto one
single chip

Microprocessor - integrated circuit which only has a

CPU on the chip

System on chips - this may contain a microcontroller as

one of its components (they almost always will include
CPU, memory, input/output (I/O) ports and secondary
storage on a single microchip)
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Inputs
• Can be input manually or can
come from an automatic source,
such as a sensor
• Can be analogue or digital in
nature
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Outputs
• Output will then carry out the
function of the embedded
system by sending signals to the
components that are being
controlled
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Programmable or non
programmable
•Non-programmable devices need, in
general, to be replaced if they require a
software upgrade.
•Programmable devices permit
upgrading by two methods:
• connecting the device to a computer
and allowing the download of updates
to the software
• automatic updates via a Wi-Fi, satellite
or cellular (mobile phone network) link
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Because embedded systems can be connected to the internet, it is

possible to control them remotely using a smartphone or
computer.
Since embedded systems are dedicated to a specific set of
tasks, engineers can optimise their designs to reduce the
physical size and cost of the devices.
Some of the latest embedded systems use very powerful dual
and quad CPUs and a variety of I/O connections leading to a
number of applications

They are feedback-oriented systems.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS - EXAMPLES
● security systems (use sensors, such as temperature, acoustic and
pressure, to monitor for intruders and sound an alarm if necessary)
● set-top box to record and play back television programmes (allow
aerial, cable, satellite or Wi-Fi inputs and can be controlled remotely)
● lighting applications (to control lighting depending on time of day,
whether a room is occupied and brightness of ambient light; makes
use of sensors and actuators to monitor and control lighting levels)
● vending machines (monitor selection, money entered, tilting of
machine and delivery of items using actuators and motors; uses
sensors to detect tilting, temperature and to count money entered)
● washing machines (selection is via keypad which allows wash
program to be selected)
● motor vehicles (fuel injection system, Global Positioning System
(GPS) navigation, in-car entertainment, anti-lock braking system
NETWORK
HARDWARE
NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC)

● Is
needed to allow a
device to connect to a
network
● Hasa Media Access
Control (MAC) address
● Wireless network
interface
cards/controllers (WNICs)
are also available
MAC ADDRESS
MAC ADDRESS

Purpose:
○A MAC address (media access control address) is a
12-digit hexadecimal number assigned to each
device connected to the network.
○Primarily specified as a unique identifier during
device manufacturing, the MAC address is often
found on a device's network interface card (NIC).
MAC ADDRESS

Structure:
○MAC address is made up of 2 parts
○First part is the manufacturers ID code
○Second part is the serial ID code for the device
○The address is represented in Hexadecimal
○It has 6 pairs of numbers separated by a dash or colon
○If the NIC card of a device is changed, then the MAC
address also changes
IP ADDRESS

Purpose:
●A unique address that locates
your device on the network.
●Different from the MAC
address, it is assigned by the
network instead of the
manufacturer
TYPES OF IP ADDRESSES:

IPv4 IPv6
IPv4 is based on 32 bits and the
IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses that take
address is written as four groups
the form of eight groups of hex digits;
of eight bits

IPv4 address is separated by full

IPv6 address is separated by colons
stops
 TYPES OF IP ADDRESSES:

Dynam
Static
ic
Are permanently assigned to a
device by the internet service
An IP address that can change each
provider (ISP); they don’t change
time a device connects to a network
each time a device logs onto the
internet.

Static IP addresses are usually assigned

to: A DHCP Server (Dynamic Host Configuration
» remote servers which are hosting a Protocol) assigns a dynamic IP address to a
website » an online database » a File device
Transfer Protocol (FTP) server.
DYNAMIC vs. STATIC IP ADDRESS
ROUTER
ROUTER
◆ enables data packets to be routed between different
networks, for example, to join a LAN to a WAN

◆ takes data transmitted in one format from a network (which

is using a particular protocol) and converts the data to a
protocol and format understood by another network,
thereby allowing them to communicate

◆ When a router receives a data packet, it reads / inspects the

data packet to find out the destination of the data and
accordingly forwards it to the correct destination.
MAC ADDRESS vs. IP ADDRESS
DATA STORAGE
DATA STORAGE
PRIMARY MEMORY

Primary memory
allows the CPU to
access applications
and services
temporarily stored in
memory locations.
 FEATURES OF RAM

✔ Random - refers to the fact that any memory location in RAM can be
accessed independent of which memory location was last used.
✔ Use - When you run an application or program, data is retrieved
from secondary storage and placed temporarily into RAM. Hence it
stores data, files, part of an application or part of the operating
system currently in use.
✔ Speed - Access time to locate data is much faster in RAM than in
secondary or off-line devices.
✔ Operations – Both read and write operations can be performed
✔ Volatile – Means that memory contents are lost when powering off
 TYPES OF RAM: DYNAMIC RAM
(DRAM)
✔ Each DRAM chip consists of transistors and capacitors.
✔ capacitor – this holds the bits of information (0 or 1)
✔ transistor – this acts like a switch; it allows the chip control circuitry to read the
capacitor or change the capacitor’s value

✔ This type of RAM needs to be constantly refreshed (that is, the

capacitor needs to be re-charged every 15 microseconds otherwise it
would lose its value).
✔ DRAMs have a number of advantages over SRAMs:
✔ they are less expensive to manufacture than SRAM
✔ they consume less power than SRAM
✔ they have a higher memory capacity than SRAM
TYPES OF RAM: STATIC RAM (SRAM)

➔SRAM doesn’t need to be constantly refreshed.

➔ It makes use of flip flops, which hold each bit of
memory.
➔Cache memory uses SRAM

➔Advantages of SRAMs:
◆ Faster than DRAM
DRAM vs. SRAM
FEATURES OF ROM

✔ Read only – data can only be read from ROM

✔ Non Volatile - the contents are not lost after powering off
the computer
✔ Use - they are often used to store data that the computer
needs to access when powering up for the first time (the
basic input/output system (BIOS)); these are known as the
start-up instructions (or bootstrap)
RAM vs. ROM
 VIRTUAL MEMORY

If the amount of available RAM gets short due to multiple programs

running, it is likely to cause a system crash.
VIRTUAL MEMORY

●RAM is the physical memory,

while virtual memory is RAM
+ swap space on the hard
disk or SSD.

●Virtual memory gives the

illusion of unlimited memory
being available.
VIRTUAL MEMORY: ADVANTAGES

✔There is no need to waste memory with data

that isn’t being used
✔ It reduces the need to buy and install more
expensive RAM memory
VIRTUAL MEMORY: DRAWBACKS

● When main memory fills, more and more data needs

to be swapped in and out of virtual memory leading to
a very high rate of hard disk read/write head
movements
● more and more time is spent on moving data in and
out of memory
● processing speed of the computer will be considerably
reduced
● Due to large numbers of head movements, this can
also lead to premature failure of a hard disk drive
VIRTUAL MEMORY: DRAWBACKS

A point can be reached when

the execution of a process
comes to a halt since the
system is so busy moving data
in and out of memory rather
than doing any actual
execution – this is known as
the thrash point.
VIRTUAL MEMORY: DRAWBACKS

How to overcome Thrashing?

●Install more RAM,
●reduce the number of programs
running at a time
●reduce the size of the swap file.
●make use of a solid state drive (SSD)
rather than using HDD
CLOUD STORAGE

Cloud storage is a
method of data storage
where data is stored on
remote servers.
CLOUD STORAGE: FEATURES
●Data backup - same data is
stored on more than one server
in case of maintenance or
repair, allowing clients to
access data at any time.
●Data storage- owned and
managed by a hosting
company and may include
hundreds of servers in many
locations
TYPES OF CLOUD STORAGE
TYPES OF CLOUD STORAGE: PUBLIC

Public cloud – this is a storage environment

where the customer/client and cloud storage
provider are different companies
Cloud “tenants,” and you access services
and manage your account using a web
browser
Public cloud resources are typically
available on a pay-per-usage basis

Example: Amazon Web Services

TYPES OF CLOUD STORAGE: PRIVATE

Private cloud – this is storage provided by a

dedicated environment behind a company firewall;
customer/client and cloud storage provider are
integrated and operate as a single entity
a model of cloud computing where the
infrastructure is dedicated to a single user
organization
A private cloud can be hosted either at an
organization's own data center, at a third party
colocation facility, or via a private cloud provider
who offers private cloud hosting services

Example: Amazon Virtual Private Cloud

TYPES OF CLOUD STORAGE: HYBRID

● this
is a combination of
the two above
environments; some
data resides in the
private cloud and less
sensitive/less
commercial data can be
accessed from a public
cloud storage provider
SECONDARY STORAGE

● includes storage devices that are not directly

addressable by the CPU.
● They are non-volatile devices that allow data to be
stored as long as required by the user.
● can store more data than primary memory
● data access time is considerably longer than with
RAM or ROM.
● All applications, the operating system, device drivers
and general files (for example, documents, photos
and music) are stored on secondary storage.
SECONDARY STORAGE

Secondary (and off-line) storage falls into three

categories according to the technology used:
★ magnetic
★ solid state
★ optical
 MAGNETIC STORAGE
Data is stored in a digital format
on the magnetic surfaces of the
disks (PLATTERS).

The hard disk drive will have a

number
of platters that can spin at about
7000 times a second.

Platters can be made from

aluminum, glass or a ceramic
material.

A number of read-write heads

can access all of the surfaces of
Hard disk drives (HDD) are one of the most common methods used to store
the platters in the disk drive.
MAGNETIC STORAGE
● Data is stored on the surface in
sectors and tracks. Each sector
contains a fixed number of bytes.
● Latency - time taken by a specific
block of data on a data track to
rotate around to the read-write head.
● Removable hard disk drives are
essentially HDDs external to the
computer that can be connected to
the computer using one of the USB
 DISK DEFRAGMENTATION

1. When a file or data is 4.

stored on a HDD, the Defragmentatio
required number n software can
of sectors needed to improve on this
store the data will be situation by
allocated. ‘tidying up’ the
disk sectors.

2. However, the sectors

allocated may not be
adjacent to each
other.
3. Through time, the HDD will undergo numerous deletions and editing which leads to
sectors becoming increasingly fragmented resulting in a gradual deterioration of the HDD
SOLID STATE STORAGE (How it
works)
1. SSDs use semiconductor
chips, they have no moving
parts.
2. These chips are made of
millions of transistors that are
laid out in a grid.
3. The transistors are wired
together using NAND or NOR
flash structure.
4. At each junction, one
transistor is called a floating
SOLID STATE STORAGE (How it
works)
1. Dielectric coating separates the 2 gates
2. Floating gate transistor holds the charge
3. Voltage is applied to control gate so that electrons from the
electron gate are attracted to it.
4. But due to the dielectric coating, electrons become trapped in
the floating gate.
5. This is how every bit value is stored.
SOLID STATE STORAGE
(Advantages)
» they are more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong)

» they are considerably lighter (which makes them

suitable for laptops)

» they don’t have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work

properly

» they have a lower power consumption

» they run much cooler than HDDs (both these points

again make them very suitable for laptop computers)

» because of no moving parts, they are very thin

» data access is considerably faster than HDD.

SOLID STATE STORAGE (Drawbacks)

Main drawback of SSD is still the longevity of

the technology

Solid state storage devices are

conservatively rated at only 20 GB of
write operations per day over a three year
period – this is known as SSD endurance.

However, the durability of these solid state

systems is being improved by a number of
manufacturers
SOLID STATE STORAGE (Video
Watch)
●https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E7Up7VuFd8A
●https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r2KaVfSH884
OPTICAL STORAGE: CD / DVD

1. Use lasers to read and write data to and from the

surface of the disk.
2. Both systems use a single, spiral track which runs from
the centre of the disk to the edge.
3. The disk spins and read/write heads move across the
surface of the disk.
4. To write data, a laser burns pits into the surface of the
disk.
5. To read data, laser reads the pits and lands to obtain
the data that they store.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CD & DVD

DVDs have a larger storage capacity than

CDs because the ‘pit’ size and track width
are both smaller.
This means that more data can be stored on
the DVD surface.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CD & DVD

●DVDs use lasers with a wavelength of 650

nanometres;
●CDs use lasers with a wavelength of 780
nanometres.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CD & DVD

●DVD technology uses dual-layering, which

considerably increases the storage
capacity.
●Basically, this means that there are two
individual recording layers.
●Two layers of a standard DVD are joined
together with a transparent
(polycarbonate) spacer, and a very thin
reflector is also sandwiched between the
Reading and writing of the second layer is done two layers.
by a red laser focusing at a fraction of a
millimetre difference compared to the first layer.
 OPTICAL STORAGE: BLU RAY DISCS

Blu Ray Disc DVD

Uses a blue laser, Uses a red laser,
wavelength of blue light is only 405 nanometres 650 nm for red light

Blu-ray can store up to five times more data than Stores less data
normal DVD
(standard dual-layer DVD has a storage
(single-layer Blu-ray disc has a storage capacity of capacity of 4.7 GB)
27 GB, dual-layer Blu-ray disc has a storage
capacity of 50 GB)
Can be single layer DVDs both use a sandwich of two 0.6 mm
Or dual layer thick disks

Come with a secure encryption system that helps No encryption

to prevent piracy and copyright infringement

Data transfer rate for a Blu-ray disc is 36 Mbps Data transfer rate for a DVD is 10 Mbps
OPTICAL STORAGE: BLU RAY DISCS

» record high definition television programs

» skip quickly to any part of the disc
» create playlists of recorded movies and television
programmes
» edit or re-order programmes recorded on the disc
» automatically search for empty space on the disc to avoid
over-recording
» access websites and download subtitles and other interesting
features.
OPTICAL STORAGE (Video Watch)

●https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ynJXHPzioA
●https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H-jxTzFrnpg
AGENDA FOR TODAY’S CLASS

• Sensor
s
SENSORS
WHAT IS A 1. Input devices
2. Read or measure physical

SENSOR? properties
3. From their surroundings
4. Real data is analogue in
nature;
5. data needs to be converted
into a digital format.
6. analogue to digital
converter (ADC)
WHAT IS A 1. Control devices - motor or
valve
SENSOR? 2. use a digital to analogue
converter (DAC)
3. Actuator - a component of
a machine that is
responsible for moving and
controlling a mechanism or
system, for example by
opening a valve.
TYPES OF SENSORS
TYPES OF SENSORS
TYPES OF SENSORS
TYPES OF SENSORS
 1. SECURITY SYSTEMS

●https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Tj2o42lJ00

the infrared sensor the acoustic sensor the pressure sensor will
will pick up the will pick up sounds pick up the weight of an
movement of an such as footsteps or intruder coming through a
intruder in the building breaking glass door or through a window
2. PATIENT MONITORING IN
HOSPITALS
●https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zwdLbWMBWbY

measure vital signs such as: temperature, heart rate, breathing rate, etc.
3. STREET LIGHTING

●https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lMWMyuvCfR0
4. ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEMS (ON
CARS)
●https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ru4JIZ-x8yo
5. CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEMS
6. CHEMICAL PROCESS CONTROL

●https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=65r7pJpNT34
7. GREENHOUSE
ENVIRONMENT
CONTROL

● https://www.yout
ube.com/watch?v
=2YJHcGQnpAk
AGENDA FOR TODAY’S CLASS

• Input devices
• Output
devices
ACTUATORS
An actuator is a mechanical or electromechanical device such as a
relay, solenoid or motor.

Solenoid converts an electrical signal into a magnetic field

producing linear motion
PROJECTORS
➔ Projectors are used to project
computer output onto larger
screens or even onto
interactive whiteboards.
➔ They are often used in
presentations and in
multimedia applications.
➔ Types:
◆ digital light projector (DLP)
◆ liquid crystal display (LCD)
projector.
DIGITAL LIGHT PROJECTORS

The use of millions of micro mirrors on a small digital

micromirror device (DMD chip) is the key to how these
devices work.

The number of micro mirrors and the way they are arranged
on the DMD chip determines the resolution of the digital
image.
DIGITAL LIGHT PROJECTORS
When the micro mirrors tilt towards the light source, they are ON.

When the micro mirrors tilt away from the light source, they are
OFF.

This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen.

The micro mirrors can switch on or off several thousand times a

second creating various grey shades – typically 1024 grey shades
can be produced
DMD CHIP
The DMD chip is a
microoptoelectromechanical
system (MOEMS) that contains
several thousand microscopic
mirrors (made out of polished
aluminium metal) arranged on
the chip surface.

They are each about 16µm in

size and each corresponds to a
pixel in the displayed screen
image.
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)
 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)
Finally, the image
passes through the
A powerful beam of white 05 projector lens onto a
light is generated from a screen
bulb or LED inside the
projector body . Consequently, three
01 04 different versions of the
same image are now
WORKIN produced. These images

This beam is then sent

G are then re-combined
using a special prism to
to a group of chromatic- produce a full colour
coated mirrors which 02 03 image
reflect the light back at
When the white light hits
different wavelengths
these mirrors, the reflected
light has wavelengths
corresponding to RGB light
components which pass
through three LCD screens
 LED SCREENS
● An LED screen is made up of tiny
light emitting diodes (LEDs).
● Each LED is either red, green or
blue in colour.
● By varying the electric current sent
to each LED, its brightness can be
controlled, producing a vast range
of colours.
● It is used for large outdoor displays
due to the brilliance of the colours
 LED - ADVANTAGES

● LEDs reach their maximum brightness almost immediately.

● LEDs give a whiter light that sharpens the image and makes
the colours appear more vivid; CCFL had a slightly yellowish
tint
● LEDs produce a brighter light that improves the colour
definition
● Monitors using LED technology are much thinner than
monitors using CCFL technology
● LEDs last indefinitely
● LEDs consume very little power which means they produce
ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
(OLED)
● These use organic materials (made up of carbon
compounds) to create semiconductors that are
very flexible.
● Organic films are sandwiched between two charged
electrodes ( metallic cathode and glass anode).
● When an electric field is applied to the electrodes,
they give off light. This means that no form of
backlighting is required. This allows for very thin
screens.
● It is possible, using OLED technology, to bend
screens to any shape
OLED -
EXAMPLES
ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (OLED)
 LCD - LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

● LCD screens are made up of tiny

liquid crystals.
● These tiny crystals make up an
array of pixels that are affected by
changes in applied electric fields.
● For LCD screens to work, they
require some form of backlighting.
● LCD screens are back-lit using light
emitting diode (LED) technology
 LOUDSPEAKERS
● Output devices that produce
sound.
● The digital data is first passed
through a digital to analogue
converter (DAC) where it is
changed into an electric current.
● This is then passed through an
amplifier (since the current
generated by the DAC will be very
small); this creates a current large
enough to drive a loudspeaker.
● This electric current is then fed to a
Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are essentially made up of:

● a print head, which consists of nozzles that spray droplets
of ink onto the paper to form characters
● an ink cartridge or cartridges;
● a stepper motor and belt, which moves the print head
assembly across the page from side to side
● a paper feed, which automatically feeds the printer with
pages as they are required.
Inkjet Printers- Ink Droplets
Thermal Bubble Piezoelectric

● Tiny resistors create localised heat ● A crystal is located at the back of

which makes the ink vaporise. the ink reservoir for each nozzle.
● This causes the ink to form a tiny ● The crystal is given a tiny electric
bubble; as the bubble expands, some charge which makes it vibrate.
of the ink is ejected from the print ● This vibration forces ink to be
head onto the paper. ejected onto the paper; at the same
● When the bubble collapses, a small time more ink is drawn in for
vacuum is created which allows fresh further printing.
ink to be drawn into the print head.
● This continues until the printing cycle
Inkjet Printers-Working
Laser Printers
● Laser printers use dry powder ink rather than liquid ink
and make use of the properties of static electricity to
produce the text and images.
● Unlike inkjet printers, laser printers print the whole page
in one go.
● Colour laser printers use 4 toner cartridges – blue, cyan,
magenta and black.
● Although the actual technology is different to
monochrome printers, the printing method is similar but
coloured dots are used to build up the text and images.
3-D Printers
● 3D printers are used to
produce solid objects
that actually work.
● They are primarily based
on inkjet and laser
printer technology.
● The solid object is built
up layer by layer using
materials such as:
powdered resin,
powdered metal, paper
or ceramic.
 1. Barcode Scanner/Reader
INPUT 2. QR Codes
3. Digital Cameras

DEVICES 4. Keyboard
5. Microphones
6. 2-d scanners/ 3-d scanners
7. Touchscreens
Input Devices- Barcode Scanner/Reader
● It is a series of dark and light
parallel lines of varying
thickness representing numbers
0 to 9.
● Barcode gives unique code for
each stock item.
● It is read by a red laser. The
reflected light is read by the
sensors.
Input Devices- Barcode Scanner/Reader

Advantages:
● Easier and faster process of
billing
● Up to date information
● automatic stock control
● Proper billing details

Uses:
● Supermarkets
Input Devices- QR Codes
● QR codes consists of a block of
small squares known as pixels.
● hold upto 4296 characters and
can have internet address to be
encoded within.
● The three large squares at the
corners as a form of alignment.
QR Codes- Working
● To use the QR code, point the
phone at the QR code. The app
processes the image and
converts squares into readable
data.
● The browser software on the
phone reads the data and
decodes any web addresses or
any other data.
Input Devices- QR Codes
Advantages-
● QR codes are easier to read.
● Easy to transmit
● Can hold more information than
barcodes.
● We can encrypt QR codes which
gives them greater protection
than traditional barcodes.
Input Devices- Digital Cameras

These cameras are controlled by an embedded

system which can automatically carry out the
following tasks:
» adjust the shutter speed
» focus the image automatically
» operate the flash gun automatically
» adjust the aperture size
Modern digital cameras » adjust the size of the image
simply link to a computer » remove ‘red eye’ when the flash gun has been
system via a USB port or by used
using Bluetooth (which
enables wireless transfer of
Digital Cameras - Working
Input Devices- Keyboards
Advantages-
● Easiest way to enter text into a
computer.
● Virtual keyboards and touch
screen keyboards make data
entry convenient.
Input Devices- Keyboards
Disadvantages-
● relatively slow method of data
entry
● prone to errors
● frequent use of these devices
lead to injuries - RSI (Repetitive
Strain Injury) in hands and
wrists.
Keyboard-Working
● There is a membrane or circuit
board at the base of the keys
● In Figure, the ‘H’ key is pressed
and this completes a circuit as
shown
● The CPU in the computer can
then determine which key has
been pressed
● The CPU refers to an index file
to identify which character the
key press represents
● Each character on a keyboard
has a corresponding ASCII
MICROPHONES
● Microphones are either built into the computer or are external devices
connected through the USB port or using Bluetooth connectivity.
● A microphone converts sound waves into an electric current. The current
produced is converted to a digital format so that a computer can process it.
Optical Mouse ● A red LED is used in the base of the
mouse and the red light is bounced off
the surface and the reflection is picked
up by a complementary metal
oxide semiconductor (CMOS).
● The CMOS generates electric pulses to
represent the reflected red light and
these pulses are sent to a digital
signal processor (DSP).
● The processor can now work out the
coordinates of the mouse based on the
An optical mouse is an changing image patterns as it is
example of a pointing device. moved about on the surface.
● The computer can then move the on-
It uses tiny cameras to take
screen cursor to the coordinates sent
1500 images per second. The by the mouse.
optical mouse can work on any
surface.
2-D Scanners

● These types of scanner

are the most common
form and are generally
used to input hard copy
(paper) documents.

● The image is converted

into an electronic form
that can be stored in a
computer.
 3-D Scanners
● 3D scanners scan solid objects
and produce a three-dimensional
image. Since solid objects have x,
y and z coordinates, these
scanners take images at several
points along these three
coordinates.
● A digital image which represents
the solid object is formed.
● The scanned images can be used
in computer aided design
(CAD).
● There are numerous technologies
used in 3D scanners – lasers,
 Touch Screens
● They allow simple touch
selection from a menu to launch
an application.

● Touch screens allow the user to

carry out the same functions as
they would with a pointing
device, such as a mouse.

● Types
○ capacitive
○ infrared
Capacitive touch screens
● composed of a layer of glass
(protective layer), a
transparent electrode
(conductive) layer and a glass
substrate.
● Since human skin is a
conductor of electricity, when
bare fingers (or a special
stylus) touch the screen, the
electrostatic field of the
conductive layer is changed.
● The installed microcontroller is
able to calculate where this
change took place and hence