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Small Scale Fading

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Small Scale Fading

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kisankar
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SMALL SCALE FADING

ArunKumar Jayaprakasam

Scope: Chapter 5 (till 5.7) of “Wireless


Communications: Principles and Practice” by
Theodore S. Rappaport
AGENDA
 Introduction
 Time Dispersion
 Delay Spread and Coherence Bandwidth
 Frequency Dispersion
 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
 Types of Fading
 Stochastic Models
 Rayleigh
 Ricean
 Some Techniques for Channel Measurement
INTRODUCTION AND TIME
DISPERSION
SCALES OF MOBILE SIGNAL VARIATION
SMALL-SCALE FADING

 Rapid fluctuations of radio signal amplitude, phase, or delays


 Occurs or short time period or short travel distance
 Large-scale path loss effects can be ignored
 Caused by arrival of two or more waves from the source combining
at the receiver
 Resultant detected signal varies widely in amplitudes and phase
 Bandwidth of transmitted signal is important factor
EXPERIMENTAL RECORD OF
RECEIVED SIGNAL ENVELOPE IN AN
URBAN AREA
MULTIPATHRADIO PROPAGATION IN
URBAN AREAS
DETERMINING THE IMPULSE RESPONSE OF A
CHANNEL
 Transmit a narrowband pulse into the channel

 Measure replicas of the pulse that traverse different paths between


transmitter and receiver
PARAMETERS OF MOBİLE MULTİPATH
CHANNELS

 Time Dispersion Parameters


 Grossly quantifies the multipath channel
 Determined from Power Delay Profile (average over
different time, a function of delay)
 Parameters include
 Mean Access Delay
 RMS Delay Spread

 Excess Delay Spread (X dB)

 Coherence Bandwidth
 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
POWER DELAY PROFİLES
 Power delay profiles are generally represented as
plots of relative received power as a function of
excess delay with respect to a fixed time delay
reference.
 Power delay profiles are found by averaging
instantaneous power delay profile measurements
over a local area.
 Are measured by channel sounding techniques
 Plots of relative received power as a function of
excess delay
 They are found by averaging intantenous power
delay measurements over a local area
 Local area: no greater than 6m outdoor
 Local area: no greater than 2m indoor

 Samples taken at l/4 meters approximately

 For 450MHz – 6 GHz frequency range.


IMPULSE RESPONSE MODEL OF A
MULTIPATH CHANNEL
PDP OUTDOOR
PDP INDOOR
TIME DISPERSION PARAMETERS
 The mean excess delay, rms delay spread, and excess delay
spread (X dB) are multipath channel parameters that can be
determined form a power delay profile.
 The mean excess delay is the first moment of the power
delay profile and is defined as
 ak2 k  P ( k ) k
k k
  
 ak2  P ( k )
k k
 The rms delay spread is the square root of the second central
moment of the power delay profile, where
 ak2 k2  P ( k ) k2
k k
    2  ( ) 2 2  
 ak2  P ( k )
k k

 Typical values of rms delay spread are on the order of


microseconds in outdoor mobile radio channel and on the
order of nanoseconds in indoor radio channel
MAXİMUM EXCESS DELAY (X DB)
 Maximum Excess Delay (X dB): Defined as the time delay
value after which the multipath energy falls to X dB below
the maximum multipath energy (not necesarily belongingto
the first arriving component). It is also called excess delay
spread.
 The maximum excess delay is defined as (x - 0), where 0 is
the first arriving signal and x is the maximum delay at
which a multipath component is within X dB of the strongest
arriving multipath signal. The value of x is sometimes
called the excess delay spread of a power delay profile.
 In practice, values depend on the choice of noise threshold
used to process P(). The noise threshold is used to
differentiate between multipath components and thermal
noise.
 Noise Thresholds
 The values of time dispersion parameters also depend on the
noise threshold (the level of power below which the signal is
considered as noise).
 If noise threshold is set too low, then the noise will be
processed as multipath and thus causing the parameters to be
higher.
RMS DELAY SPREAD
EFFECT OF DELAY SPREAD
COMPARISON OF THE BER FOR A
FADING
AND NON-FADING CHANNEL
EFFECT ON ERROR RATE
COHERENT BANDWIDTH
 Analogous to the delay spread parameters in the time
domain, coherence bandwidth is used to characterize
the channel in the frequency domain.
 Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the
range of frequencies over which the channel can be
considered flat.
 Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than Bc
are affected quite differently by the channel.
f1

Receiver
f2

Multipath Channel Frequency Separation: |f1-f2|


COHERENT BANDWIDTH
 Frequency correlation between two sinusoids: 0 <=
Cr1, r2 <= 1.
 Coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies

over which two frequency components have a


strong potential for amplitude correlation.
 is rms delay spread 1
B
 If correlation is above 0.9, then
C 
50

1
BC 
 If correlation is above 0.5, then
5
 This is called 50% coherence bandwidth
EXAMPLE
 For a multipath channel, s is given as 1.37ms.
 The 50% coherence bandwidth is given as: 1/5s =

146kHz.
 This means that, for a good transmission from a
transmitter to a receiver, the range of transmission
frequency (channel bandwidth) should not exceed
146kHz, so that all frequencies in this band experience
the same channel characteristics.
 Equalizers are needed in order to use transmission
frequencies that are separated larger than this value.
 This coherence bandwidth is enough for an AMPS
channel (30kHz band needed for a channel), but is not
enough for a GSM channel (200kHz needed per
channel).
FREQUENCY DISPERSION
Doppler shift
S
S = signal source
v = velocity
d = distance Y-X on mobiles path of

09/25/2024
movement
t = d/v
l = dcos1 = vtcos 1 l
if S is far away, assume 1 ≈ 2 1 2
X d Y

v
2l 2vt
phase   cos  (4.1
 
shift: = )
Doppler shift = relative frequency change
during t 1  v 24
fd  cos  (4.2
2 t 
= )
e.g. fc = 1850 MHz   = c/fc = 0.162m
v = 60mph = 28.62 m/s

09/25/2024
a. mobile moving directly towards transmitter:  = 0o

 cos  = 1 v
fd = v/ = 160Hz S

f = fc + fd = 1850.00016MHz

b. mobile moving directly away from transmitter


 = 180o  cos  = -1 v
fd = -v/ = -160Hz
f = fc + fd = 1849.99984MHz
S
25
c. mobile moving  to angle of signal’s arrival
 = 90o  cos  = 0
MOBILITY
 Moving receive antennar r0  vt

 ( , , f c ) cos 2f c [(1  v / c)t  r0 / c]


Er ( f c , t , (r0  vt ,  , )) 
r0  vt

Transmit antenna

Movement
MOBILITY
 Phase offset due to Doppler effect
 Doppler

Doppler shift  fv / c
REFLECTION
 Simple reflection and superposition

 cos 2f c (t  r / c)  cos 2f c [t  (2d  r ) / c]


Er ( f c , t , (r ,  , ))  
r 2d  r

180 degrees phase change

d
Transmit antenna
r
REFLECTION
 Superposition of two sinusoids
2f c (2d  r ) 2f c r 4f c
Phase difference : (  )  ( ) (d  r )  
c c c
 Constructive if phase difference is multiple
of 360 degrees
 Destructive superposition if 180

 Coherence Distance
REFLECTING WALL MOVING ANTENNA
COHERENCE TIME
 Delay spread and Coherence bandwidth describe
the time dispersive nature of the channel in a local
area.
 They don’t offer information about the time varying nature
of the channel caused by relative motion of transmitter and
receiver.
 Doppler Spread and Coherence time are
parameters which describe the time varying
nature of the channel in a small-scale region.
DOPPLER SPREAD
 Measure of spectral broadening caused by motion,
the time rate of change of the mobile radio
channel, and is defined as the range of frequencies
over which the received Doppler spectrum is
essentially non-zero.
 We know how to compute Doppler shift: f
d

 Doppler spread, BD, is defined as the maximum


Doppler shift: fm = v/l
 If the baseband signal bandwidth is much less than
BD then effect of Doppler spread is negligible at the
receiver.
COHERENCE TIME
 Coherence time is the time duration over which the
channel impulse response is essentially invariant.
 If the symbol period of the baseband signal

(reciprocal of the baseband signal bandwidth) is


greater the coherence time, than the signal will
distort, since channel will change during the
transmission of the signal .
TS Coherence time (TC) is defined as:

TC TC  f1
m

f2
f1

t1 Dt=t2 - t1 t2
COHERENCE TIME
0.423
TC 
 Coherence time is also defined as:
9

16f m2
fm
 Coherence time definition implies that two signals

arriving with a time separation greater than TC are


affected differently by the channel.
 Coherence time Tc is the time domain dual of

Doppler spread and is used to characterize the


time varying nature of the frequency dispersive-
ness of the channel in the time domain.
 If the coherence time is defined as the time over

which the time correlation function is above 0.5,


then the coherence time is approximately,
fm 
v

where 9
Tc 
16f m
TYPES OF SMALL SCALE
FADING
TYPES OF SMALL-SCALE FADING
Small-scale Fading
(Based on Multipath Tİme Delay
Spread)

Frequency Selective Fading


Flat Fading
1. BW Signal > Bw of Channel
1. BW Signal < BW of Channel
2. Delay Spread > Symbol
2. Delay Spread < Symbol Period
Period

Small-scale Fading
(Based on Doppler Spread)

Fast Fading Slow Fading


1. High Doppler Spread 1. Low Doppler Spread
2. Coherence Time < 2. Coherence Time >
Symbol Period Symbol Period
3. Channel variations faster 3. Channel variations smaller
than baseband signal than baseband
variations signal variations
FLAT FADİNG (FREQUENCY FLAT
FADING)
 Occurs when symbol period of the transmitted signal is much
larger than the Delay Spread of the channel
 Bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow.
 If B  B , and T    Flat fading
s c s 
 May cause deep fades.
 require 20 or 30 dB more power to achieve low BER during
times of deep fades.
 Increase the transmit power to combat this situation.
 The spectral characteristics of the transmitted signals are
preserved at the receiver, however the strength of the received
signal changes with time.
 Flat fading channels are known as amplitude varying channels
or narrow-band channels.
 Radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response
over a bandwidth which is greater than the bandwidth of the
transmitted signal.
 It is the most common type of fading described in the technical
literature.
FLAT FADİNG (FREQUENCY FLAT
FADING)

s(t) r(t)
h(t,t)

t << TS

0 TS 0 t 0 TS+t

Occurs when: B : Coherence bandwidth


C
BS << BC BS: Signal bandwidth
and TS: Symbol period
TS >> st
st: Delay Spread
FREQUENCY SELECTİVE FADİNG
 Occurs when channel multipath delay spread is greater than the
symbol period.
 Symbols face time dispersion
 Channel induces Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
 Bandwidth of the signal s(t) is wider than the channel impulse
response.
 Radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over
a bandwidth which is smaller than the bandwidth of the
transmitted signal.
 Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion of the
transmitted symbols within the channel. Thus the channel induces
inter-symbol-interference.
 Statistical impulse response model and computer generated
impulse responses are used for analyzing frequency selective
small-scale fading.
 Frequency selective fading channels are known as wideband
channels since the BW of the signal is wider than the BW of the
channel impulse response.
 As time varies, the channel varies in gain and amplitude across the
spectrum of s(t), resulting in time varying distortion in the received
signal r(t).
 If Bs  Bc , and 0.1Ts    Frequency selective fading
FREQUENCY SELECTİVE FADİNG

s(t) r(t)
h(t,t)

t >> TS

0 TS 0 t 0 TS TS+t

Causes distortion of the received baseband signal

Causes Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)


Occurs when:
BS > B C As a rule of thumb: TS < st
and
TS < st
FAST FADING
 Due to Doppler Spread
 Rate of change of the channel characteristics is
larger than the
Rate of change of the transmitted signal
Occurs when:
 The channel changes during a symbol period. BS < B D
 The channel changes because of receiver motion. and
 Coherence time of the channel is smaller than TS > TC
the symbol period of the transmitter signal
 It causes frequency dispersion due to Doppler
spread and leads to distortion.
 Note that, when a channel is specified as a fast or
BS: Bandwidth of
slow fading channel, it does not specify whether the signal
the channel is flat or frequency selective
 A flat, fast fading channel  the amplitude
BD: Doppler
of the delta function varies faster than the Spread
rate of change of the transmitted baseband TS: Symbol Period
signal. TC: Coherence
 A frequency selective, fast fading Time
channel  the amplitudes, phases, and time
delays of any one of the multipath
components varies faster than the rate of
change of the transmitted baseband signal.
SLOW FADING
 Due to Doppler Spread
 Rate of change of the channel characteristics is much
smaller than the rate of change of the transmitted
signal

Occurs when: BS: Bandwidth of the signal


BS >> BD BD: Doppler Spread
and TS: Symbol Period
TS << TC
TC: Coherence Bandwidth
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FADING
 With Respect To SYMBOL PERIOD
TS

Flat Fast
Flat Slow
Fading
Fading

Symbol Period of
Transmitting Signal

st Frequency Selective Frequency Selective


Slow Fading Fast Fading

TC
TS
Transmitted Symbol Period
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FADING
 With Respect To BASEBAND SIGNAL BANDWIDTH

BS
Frequency Selective Frequency Selective
Fast Fading Slow Fading
Transmitted
Baseband BC
Signal Bandwidth

Flat Fast Flat Slow


Fading Fading

BD
BS
Transmitted Baseband Signal Bandwidth
FADING STOCHASTIC
MODELS
FADING DISTRIBUTIONS
 Describes how the received signal amplitude changes with
time.
 Remember that the received signal is combination of
multiple signals arriving from different directions, phases
and amplitudes.
 With the received signal we mean the baseband signal,
namely the envelope of the received signal (i.e. r(t)).
 It is a statistical characterization of the multipath fading.
 Two distributions
 Rayleigh Fading
 Ricean Fading
RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTIONS
 Describes the received signal envelope distribution for
channels, where all the components are non-LOS:
 i.e. there is no line-of–sight (LOS) component.
RICEAN DISTRIBUTIONS
 Describes the received signal envelope distribution for
channels where one of the multipath components is LOS
component.
 i.e. there is one LOS component.
RAYLEIGH FADING
RAYLEIGH FADING
RAYLEIGH FADING DISTRIBUTION

 The Rayleigh distribution is commonly used to


describe the statistical time varying nature of the
received envelope of a flat fading signal, or the
envelope of an individual multipath component.
 The envelope of the sum of two quadrature

Gaussian noise signals obeys a Rayleigh


distribution.  r r2
 exp( ) 0  r 
p (r )   2 2 2
0 r0

  is the rms value of the received voltage before


envelope detection, and 2 is the time-average
power of the received signal before envelope
detection.
RAYLEIGH PDF
0.7

0.6065/s
0.6
mean = 1.2533s
median = 1.177s
0.5
variance = 0.4292s2
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 s
1 2s
2 3s
3 4s
4 5s
5
A TYPICAL RAYLEIGH FADING
ENVELOPE AT 900MHZ.
RICEAN DISTRIBUTION
 When there is a stationary (non-fading) LOS signal present,
then the envelope distribution is Ricean.
 The Ricean distribution degenerates to Rayleigh when the
dominant component fades away.
CDF
 Cumulative distribution for three small-scale fading
measurements and their fit to Rayleigh, Ricean, and log-
normal distributions.
PDF
 Probability density function of Ricean distributions:
K=-∞dB (Rayleigh) and K=6dB. For K>>1, the
Ricean pdf is approximately Gaussian about the
mean.
SMALL-SCALE FADING MECHANISM

 Assume signals arrive from


all angles in the horizontal
plane 0<α<360
 Signal amplitudes are

equal, independent of α
 Assume further that there is

no multipath delay: (flat


fading assumption)
 Doppler shifts

v
f n  cos an

CARRIER DOPPLER SPECTRUM
 Spectrum Empirical investigations show results
that deviate from this model Power
Model Power goes to infinity at fc+/-fm
LEVEL CROSSING RATE (LCR)

Threshold (R)

LCR is defined as the expected rate at which the Rayleigh fading


envelope, normalized to the local rms signal level, crosses a specified
threshold level R in a positive going direction. It is given by:

 2
N R  2 f m e
where

 R / rrms (specfied envelopevalue normalized to rms)

N R : crossings per second


AVERAGE FADE DURATION
Defined as the average period of time for which the received signal is
below a specified level R.

For Rayleigh distributed fading signal, it is given by:

1
  Pr[ r R] 
NR
1
NR
1 e  2
 
2
e 1 R
 , 
f m 2 rrms
SIMULATING 2-RAY MULTIPATH
 a1 and a2 are independent Rayleigh fading
 1 and 2 are uniformly distributed over [0,2)
CHANNEL MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES
Small Scale Path Measurements
• multipath structure used to determine small-scale
fading effects
• Classification of Techniques for Wideband Channel
Sounding
(1) direct pulse
(2) spread spectrum sliding correlator
(3) swept frequency measurements

09/25/2024 63
4.3.1: Direct RF Pulse System to measure channel
impulse response
simple & cheap channel sounding approach - quickly
determine PDP
• fundamentally a wide-band pulsed bistatic radar
• transmit probing pulse, p(t) with time duration = Tbb
• receiver uses wideband filter, BW = 2/ Tbb Hz
- envelope detector used to amplify & detect
received
Pulse signal TREP
Gen
fc Tx Tbb Rx BW = 2/Tbb
Detect Storage
O-
or Scope
Tbb = minimum resolvable delay between
MPCs
e.g. let T = 1ns  BW = 2GHz & minimum resolvable delay = 1ns
bb
09/25/2024 64
4.3.2 Spread Spectrum (SS) Sliding Correlator
Sounding
• probe signal is still wideband
• possible to detect transmitted signal using
narrowband receiver,
preceded by wideband mixer
• improved dynamic range compared to pulsed RF
system
SS: carrier  PN sequence  spreads signal over large bandwidth
• Tc = chip duration
• Rc = chip rate = Tc-1
Rx Chip Clock = β(Hz)
fc Tx PNGen
Rx
Detecto Storag
r e
PN BW2R narrowband at fc O-
Gen
Tx Chip wideband correlation Scope
Clock c resolution 
filter BW
Rc = (Hz) R -1

System to Measure SSBW2(-)


c
Channel Response (rms pulse
09/25/2024 65
width)
4.3.3 Frequency Domain Channel Sounding
• vector network analyzer controls synthesized
frequency sweeper
• S-parameter test-set monitors channel frequency
response
• sweeper scans specified frequency band (centered on
a carrier)
Vector Network Analyzer Rx
Tx with Swept Frequency Oscillator
X(w)
S-Parameter Test- Y(w)
Set
port 1 port 2
IFT
S21(w)  H(w) = Y(w)/X(w)
h(t) = F-
1
[H(w)]
Frequency Domain Channel Sounding System
09/25/2024 66
For each frequency step the S-parameter test-set
• transmits known signal on port 1
• monitors received signal on port 2

Network Analyzer processes signal levels to determine

complex response of the channel over the measured

frequency give as S21(w)  H(w)

- frequency domain representation of channel impulse

response
- IFT (Inverse Fourier Transform) used to convert back to
time domain

Works well for short ranges if carefully calibrated &

synchronized
09/25/2024 67
THANK YOU
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The contents of the slides have been taken


from various sources for explanation
purposes only. No copyright violation
intended.
BACKUP
RAYLEIGH FADING DISTRIBUTION
 The probability that the envelope of the received
signal does not exceed a specified value of R is
given by the CDF: R

R2

P ( R ) Pr (r R ) p (r )dr 1  e 2 2



0 
rmean E[r ] rp (r )dr  1.2533
0
2
rmed ia n
1
rmedian 1.177 found by solving 
2 p(r )dr
0

rrms  2
r = and p()=0.6065/
peak
  2
  E [ r ] E [ r ]   r p ( r )dr 
2
r
2 2 2
 0.4292 2
0 2
RICEAN FADING DISTRIBUTION
 When there is a dominant stationary signal component
present, the small-scale fading envelope distribution is
Ricean. The effect of a dominant signal arriving with many
weaker multipath signals gives rise to the Ricean distribution.
 The Ricean distribution degenerates to a Rayleigh distribution
when the dominant component fades away.
 r ( r 2  A2 ) Ar
 exp[ ] I 0 ( ) 0  r  , A 0
p( r )   2 2 2
 2

0 r 0

 The Ricean distribution is often described in terms of a
parameter K which is defined as the ratio between the
deterministic signal power and the variance of the multipath.
A2
 K is known as the Ricean factorK  2 2
 As A0, K  - dB, Ricean distribution degenerates to
Rayleigh distribution.
SIMULATING DOPPLER FADING
 Procedure

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