Small Scale Fading
Small Scale Fading
ArunKumar Jayaprakasam
Coherence Bandwidth
Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
POWER DELAY PROFİLES
Power delay profiles are generally represented as
plots of relative received power as a function of
excess delay with respect to a fixed time delay
reference.
Power delay profiles are found by averaging
instantaneous power delay profile measurements
over a local area.
Are measured by channel sounding techniques
Plots of relative received power as a function of
excess delay
They are found by averaging intantenous power
delay measurements over a local area
Local area: no greater than 6m outdoor
Local area: no greater than 2m indoor
Receiver
f2
1
BC
If correlation is above 0.5, then
5
This is called 50% coherence bandwidth
EXAMPLE
For a multipath channel, s is given as 1.37ms.
The 50% coherence bandwidth is given as: 1/5s =
146kHz.
This means that, for a good transmission from a
transmitter to a receiver, the range of transmission
frequency (channel bandwidth) should not exceed
146kHz, so that all frequencies in this band experience
the same channel characteristics.
Equalizers are needed in order to use transmission
frequencies that are separated larger than this value.
This coherence bandwidth is enough for an AMPS
channel (30kHz band needed for a channel), but is not
enough for a GSM channel (200kHz needed per
channel).
FREQUENCY DISPERSION
Doppler shift
S
S = signal source
v = velocity
d = distance Y-X on mobiles path of
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movement
t = d/v
l = dcos1 = vtcos 1 l
if S is far away, assume 1 ≈ 2 1 2
X d Y
v
2l 2vt
phase cos (4.1
shift: = )
Doppler shift = relative frequency change
during t 1 v 24
fd cos (4.2
2 t
= )
e.g. fc = 1850 MHz = c/fc = 0.162m
v = 60mph = 28.62 m/s
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a. mobile moving directly towards transmitter: = 0o
cos = 1 v
fd = v/ = 160Hz S
f = fc + fd = 1850.00016MHz
Transmit antenna
Movement
MOBILITY
Phase offset due to Doppler effect
Doppler
Doppler shift fv / c
REFLECTION
Simple reflection and superposition
d
Transmit antenna
r
REFLECTION
Superposition of two sinusoids
2f c (2d r ) 2f c r 4f c
Phase difference : ( ) ( ) (d r )
c c c
Constructive if phase difference is multiple
of 360 degrees
Destructive superposition if 180
Coherence Distance
REFLECTING WALL MOVING ANTENNA
COHERENCE TIME
Delay spread and Coherence bandwidth describe
the time dispersive nature of the channel in a local
area.
They don’t offer information about the time varying nature
of the channel caused by relative motion of transmitter and
receiver.
Doppler Spread and Coherence time are
parameters which describe the time varying
nature of the channel in a small-scale region.
DOPPLER SPREAD
Measure of spectral broadening caused by motion,
the time rate of change of the mobile radio
channel, and is defined as the range of frequencies
over which the received Doppler spectrum is
essentially non-zero.
We know how to compute Doppler shift: f
d
TC TC f1
m
f2
f1
t1 Dt=t2 - t1 t2
COHERENCE TIME
0.423
TC
Coherence time is also defined as:
9
16f m2
fm
Coherence time definition implies that two signals
Small-scale Fading
(Based on Doppler Spread)
s(t) r(t)
h(t,t)
t << TS
0 TS 0 t 0 TS+t
s(t) r(t)
h(t,t)
t >> TS
0 TS 0 t 0 TS TS+t
Flat Fast
Flat Slow
Fading
Fading
Symbol Period of
Transmitting Signal
TC
TS
Transmitted Symbol Period
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FADING
With Respect To BASEBAND SIGNAL BANDWIDTH
BS
Frequency Selective Frequency Selective
Fast Fading Slow Fading
Transmitted
Baseband BC
Signal Bandwidth
BD
BS
Transmitted Baseband Signal Bandwidth
FADING STOCHASTIC
MODELS
FADING DISTRIBUTIONS
Describes how the received signal amplitude changes with
time.
Remember that the received signal is combination of
multiple signals arriving from different directions, phases
and amplitudes.
With the received signal we mean the baseband signal,
namely the envelope of the received signal (i.e. r(t)).
It is a statistical characterization of the multipath fading.
Two distributions
Rayleigh Fading
Ricean Fading
RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTIONS
Describes the received signal envelope distribution for
channels, where all the components are non-LOS:
i.e. there is no line-of–sight (LOS) component.
RICEAN DISTRIBUTIONS
Describes the received signal envelope distribution for
channels where one of the multipath components is LOS
component.
i.e. there is one LOS component.
RAYLEIGH FADING
RAYLEIGH FADING
RAYLEIGH FADING DISTRIBUTION
0.6065/s
0.6
mean = 1.2533s
median = 1.177s
0.5
variance = 0.4292s2
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 s
1 2s
2 3s
3 4s
4 5s
5
A TYPICAL RAYLEIGH FADING
ENVELOPE AT 900MHZ.
RICEAN DISTRIBUTION
When there is a stationary (non-fading) LOS signal present,
then the envelope distribution is Ricean.
The Ricean distribution degenerates to Rayleigh when the
dominant component fades away.
CDF
Cumulative distribution for three small-scale fading
measurements and their fit to Rayleigh, Ricean, and log-
normal distributions.
PDF
Probability density function of Ricean distributions:
K=-∞dB (Rayleigh) and K=6dB. For K>>1, the
Ricean pdf is approximately Gaussian about the
mean.
SMALL-SCALE FADING MECHANISM
equal, independent of α
Assume further that there is
v
f n cos an
CARRIER DOPPLER SPECTRUM
Spectrum Empirical investigations show results
that deviate from this model Power
Model Power goes to infinity at fc+/-fm
LEVEL CROSSING RATE (LCR)
Threshold (R)
2
N R 2 f m e
where
1
Pr[ r R]
NR
1
NR
1 e 2
2
e 1 R
,
f m 2 rrms
SIMULATING 2-RAY MULTIPATH
a1 and a2 are independent Rayleigh fading
1 and 2 are uniformly distributed over [0,2)
CHANNEL MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES
Small Scale Path Measurements
• multipath structure used to determine small-scale
fading effects
• Classification of Techniques for Wideband Channel
Sounding
(1) direct pulse
(2) spread spectrum sliding correlator
(3) swept frequency measurements
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4.3.1: Direct RF Pulse System to measure channel
impulse response
simple & cheap channel sounding approach - quickly
determine PDP
• fundamentally a wide-band pulsed bistatic radar
• transmit probing pulse, p(t) with time duration = Tbb
• receiver uses wideband filter, BW = 2/ Tbb Hz
- envelope detector used to amplify & detect
received
Pulse signal TREP
Gen
fc Tx Tbb Rx BW = 2/Tbb
Detect Storage
O-
or Scope
Tbb = minimum resolvable delay between
MPCs
e.g. let T = 1ns BW = 2GHz & minimum resolvable delay = 1ns
bb
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4.3.2 Spread Spectrum (SS) Sliding Correlator
Sounding
• probe signal is still wideband
• possible to detect transmitted signal using
narrowband receiver,
preceded by wideband mixer
• improved dynamic range compared to pulsed RF
system
SS: carrier PN sequence spreads signal over large bandwidth
• Tc = chip duration
• Rc = chip rate = Tc-1
Rx Chip Clock = β(Hz)
fc Tx PNGen
Rx
Detecto Storag
r e
PN BW2R narrowband at fc O-
Gen
Tx Chip wideband correlation Scope
Clock c resolution
filter BW
Rc = (Hz) R -1
response
- IFT (Inverse Fourier Transform) used to convert back to
time domain
synchronized
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THANK YOU
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
rrms 2
r = and p()=0.6065/
peak
2
E [ r ] E [ r ] r p ( r )dr
2
r
2 2 2
0.4292 2
0 2
RICEAN FADING DISTRIBUTION
When there is a dominant stationary signal component
present, the small-scale fading envelope distribution is
Ricean. The effect of a dominant signal arriving with many
weaker multipath signals gives rise to the Ricean distribution.
The Ricean distribution degenerates to a Rayleigh distribution
when the dominant component fades away.
r ( r 2 A2 ) Ar
exp[ ] I 0 ( ) 0 r , A 0
p( r ) 2 2 2
2
0 r 0
The Ricean distribution is often described in terms of a
parameter K which is defined as the ratio between the
deterministic signal power and the variance of the multipath.
A2
K is known as the Ricean factorK 2 2
As A0, K - dB, Ricean distribution degenerates to
Rayleigh distribution.
SIMULATING DOPPLER FADING
Procedure