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Logic Programming-1

Ppt of logic programming

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SHARK GAMING
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3 views

Logic Programming-1

Ppt of logic programming

Uploaded by

SHARK GAMING
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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LOGIC

PROGRAMMING
-GROUP H
 INTRODUCTION :-
Logic programming is a programming paradigm that is based on formal
logic.

In this paradigm, you write programs by specifying a set of facts and
rules, and then query the system to infer new information or solve
problems.

Prolog is the most widely used logic programming language.

Prolog is a computer programming language that is used for solving


• problems that involve objects and the relationships between objects.
 BACKGROUND FOR LOGIC:-
A proposition is a logical statement that is only made if it is true
• Today is Tuesday
• The Earth is round

Symbolic logic uses propositions to express ideas, relationships between


ideas and to generate new ideas based on the given propositions.

Two forms of propositions are


• Atomic propositions
• Compound terms (multiple propositions connected through the logical
operators of and, or, not, and implies)

Propositions will either be true (if stated) or something to prove or disprove


(determine if it is true) – we do not include statements which are false
 LOGIC FORMULAS:-
 Declarative statement contains:
- Persons (individual)
• "Mary, Tom".
• - Relation between individuals like:
• ". . . is a mother "
• ". . . is a child of . . . "
• ". . . loves . . . "
• - Relation may not hold between individuals like:
• “…being a mother"
• - Relations with more than two objects like:
• “ . . . is the sum of . . . and . . . "
 PROLOG:-
PROLOG is a programming language that allows the programmer to specify
declarative statements only
• declarative statements (things you are declaring) fall into 2 categories
• predicates/propositions that are true
• clauses (truth preserving rules in clausal form)
• once specified, the programmer then introduces questions to be
answered
• PROLOG uses resolution (backward chaining) and unification to
perform the problem solving automatically
PROLOG was developed in France and England in the late 70s
• the intent was to provide a language that could accommodate logic
statements and has largely been used in AI but also to a lesser extent as
a database language or to solve database related problems
 ELEMENTS OF PROLOG:-
Terms – constant, variable, structure
• constants are atoms or integers (atoms are like those symbols found in Lisp)
• variables are not bound to types, but are bound to values when instantiated
(via unification)
• an instantiation will last as long as it takes to complete a goal
• proving something is true, or reaching a dead end with the current instantiation
• structures are predicates and are represented as
• functor(parameter list) where functor is the name of the predicate
All statements in Prolog consist of clauses
• headed clauses are rules
• headless clauses are statements that are always true
• in reality, a headless clause is a rule whose condition is always true
• all clauses must end with a period
 ADVANTAGES OF PROLOG:-
 There are several advantages to using Prolog
• ability to create automated problem solvers merely by listing knowledge
• a shortcut way to build and query a database
• solving significantly difficult problems with minimal code:
• Deriving the permutations of a list List:
perm(List,[H|Perm]):-delete(H,List,Rest),perm(Rest,Perm).
perm([ ],[ ]).
delete(X,[X|T],T).
delete(X,[H|T],[H|NT]):-delete(X,T,NT).
• Sorting a list of values stored in List:
insert_sort(List,Sorted):-i_sort(List,[],Sorted).
i_sort([ ],Acc,Acc).
i_sort([H|T],Acc,Sorted):-insert(H,Acc,NAcc),i_sort(T,NAcc,Sorted).
insert(X,[Y|T],[Y|NT]):-X>Y,insert(X,T,NT).
insert(X,[Y|T],[X,Y|T]):-X=<Y.
insert(X,[],[X]).
A naïve sort (inefficient, but simple):
naive_sort(List,Sorted):-perm(List,Sorted),is_sorted(Sorted).
is_sorted([ ]).
is_sorted([ _ ]).
 DEFICIENCIES OF PROLOG:-
Lack of control structures
• Prolog offers built-in control of resolution and unification
• you often have to force a problem into the resolution mold to solve it with Prolog (most problems cannot or
should not be solved in this way)
Inefficiencies of resolution
• resolution, as a process, is intractable (O(2n) for n clauses)
• useful heuristics could be applied to reduce the complexity, but there is no way to apply heuristics in Prolog
• they would just be additional rules that increases the size of n!
Closed world assumption
• in any form of logic reasoning, if something is not known, it is assumed to be false and everything
is either true or false
Negation is difficult to represent
• since there is no NOT in Prolog, how do we represent NOT?
• recall that anything explicitly stated must be true so we cannot specify NOT something as something would then
be false
• we can represent A != B, but we cannot represent ~dog(X).
THANK YOU
1.SANDEEP GUPTA-123
2.ABHISHEK SHARMA-
130
3.SINESH PRAJAPATI-126
4.SHAIKH SHARIK-128
5.GANESH NISHAD-125
6.MANIKANDAN-124
7.ROHIT SINGH-140

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