The Generation of Quantum Computing

The Era of Quantum Computing

Moore’s law & Future of Computers
 Towards Newer Horizons..
• In the History computing, Moore's law says that the
number of transistors on a microprocessor doubles
about every 18 months, The year 2020-30 will find the
ckt on microprocessor measured on an atomic scale.
• Processor being affected by the strange rules of
Quantum Mechanics.
• In 1981,Richard Feynman led the way by producing an
abstract model of how, in principle, a quantum system
could be used to perform computations.
i.e. Quantum computer
 What Is a Quantum Computer?
Quantum Computer
A computer that uses laws of quantum mechanics to
perform massively parallel computing through
quantum phenomena superposition, entanglement,
and decoherence.

Classical Computer
Classical computing is another name for binary
computing. In this traditional approach to computing,
information is stored in bits that are represented
logically by either a 0 (off) or a 1 (on)
 What is a Quantum Computing

• Quantum computing is a multidisciplinary field

comprising aspects of computer science,
physics, and mathematics that utilizes
quantum mechanics to solve complex
problems faster than on classical computers.
Defining The Quantum Computer

KEY to Open Lock = 11

00 = Wrong (1 Sec)
01= Wrong (1 Sec)
10= Wrong (1 Sec)
11= Correct (1 Sec)

On average, it would take two attempts to

discover the correct 2-digit combination (4/2).
KEY to Open Lock = 11

00 ,01,10,11 (1 Sec)
Super position

In this case, it offers a square root

speedup, reducing the average
number of attempts to approximately
1 (sqrt(4)/2).
 Why we need QC
• Quantum computers have the potential to solve a wide range of problems that are difficult or
impossible for classical computers. Here are a few examples:

• Simulating quantum systems: One of the key benefits of quantum computers is their ability to
simulate quantum systems, such as molecules and materials, with greater accuracy and efficiency
than classical computers. This could have important applications in fields such as chemistry,
material science, and drug discovery.
• Optimizing large-scale systems: Quantum computers can use quantum algorithms to solve
optimization problems, such as the traveling salesman problem, more efficiently than classical
computers. This could have important applications in fields such as logistics, finance, and energy
management.
• Cryptography: Certain encryption algorithms that are currently used to secure communications and
protect sensitive information, such as RSA and Elliptic Curve Cryptography, can be broken by a large
enough quantum computer. On the other hand, quantum computers can also be used to create
new, more secure forms of encryption.
• Machine learning: Quantum computers have the potential to perform machine learning tasks, such
as pattern recognition and data analysis, faster and more efficiently than classical computers.
• Overall, quantum computers are a new and powerful tool that have the potential to impact many
fields and enable breakthroughs in areas where classical computers have reached their limits.
 How does quantum computing work?
• Quantum computing uses quantum mechanics to
manipulate qubits. Qubits can be represented by the
spin of an electron or the polarization of a photon.
• Quantum gates are analogous to the logic gates used
in classical computing.
• However, quantum gates can perform multiple
operations simultaneously, allowing quantum
computers to perform most complex problems that
are currently unsolvable with classical computers
and calculations at an unprecedented speed.
Evolution of Quantum Theory & Quantum Technology
 Brief History of Quantum Computers
• 1981: Richard Feynman proposed to use quantum computing to model
quantum systems. He also describe theoretical model of quantum
computer
• 1985: David Deutsch described first universal quantum computer
• 1994: Peter Shor developed the first algorithm for quantum computer
(factorization into primes)
• 1995 Schumacher proposed “Quantum bit” or “qubit” as physical
resource
• 1996: Lov Grover developed an algorithm for search in unsorted
database
• 1998: the first quantum computers on two qubits, based on NMR
(Oxford; IBM, MIT, Stanford)
• 2000: quantum computer on 7 qubits, based on NMR (Los-Alamos)
• 2001: 15 = 3 x 5 on 7- qubit quantum computer by IBM
• 2005-2006: experiments with photons; quantum dots; fullerenes and
nanotubes as "particle traps"
 Brief History of Quantum Computers
• 2007: D-Wave announced the creation of a quantum computer on 16
qubits
• 2012: D-Wave claimed a quantum computation using 84 qubits
• 2017: D-Wave Systems Inc. announced the D-Wave 2000Q quantum
annealer with 2000 qubits
• 2017: Microsoft revealed Q Sharp with 32 qubits
• 2018: Google announced the creation of a 72-qubit quantum chip
• 2019: Google claimed quantum supremacy with 54 qubits to perform
operations in 200 seconds that would take a supercomputer about 10,000
years to complete
• 2019: IBM revealed 53 qubits
• 2020: Chinese researchers claimed to have achieved quantum supremacy
using a photonic 76-qubit system at 100 trillion times the speed of
classical supercomputers.
• 2020: IBM will build 1121-qubit quantum computer in 2023, and 1
million-qubit quantum computer in 2030.
How Hard Is It to Build a Quantum Computer?

• Building a quantum computer

takes a long time and is vastly
expensive.
• Google has been working on
building a quantum computer for
years and has spent billions of
dollars.- ready by 2029
• IBM hopes to have a 1,000-qubit
quantum computer in place by
2023.
 How Fast Is a Quantum Computer?
• A classical computer has a clock speed measured in
gigahertz. (GHZ)
• This translates to a processing speed of a few billion
simple logic operations per second.
• The processing power of quantum computers is
measured in teraflops. Or trillions of logic operations
per second.
• Google’s Quantum Computer Is About 158 Million
Times Faster Than the World’s Fastest Supercomputer.
(D-Wave)
• Google Quantum Computer Is '47 Years' Faster Than #1
Supercomputer(D-Wave)
What does a quantum computer look like?
Quantum Computing Race - Corporations
What If ?
 Quantum Computing Basics

• In classical computing, a bit is

the basic unit of information. It
can represent either a 0 or a 1.
• In contrast, a Qubits is the
basic unit of information in
quantum computing.
• Quantum computing is based
on qubit which can be both 0
and 1.
• Quantum computing use
Quantum bits or QUBITS,
• Qubit or quantum bit or Qbit is a unit of quantum data.
• superposition of two quantum levels ,ie
• A qubit is a two-state quantum mechanical system.
– one is the vertical polarization of the photon.
– another one is the horizontal polarization of the photon.
• It is similar to classical computing system like 0 and 1.
• A qubit is not limited to representing just a 0 or a 1.
• Instead, it can represent a combination of both 0 and 1 at the same time.
• In Quantum mechanics, a qubit that can be in any form at the same time is called
superposition.
• This means that a qubit can be in a range of probabilities for 0 and 1 at the same
time.
• We can label the states |0> and |1>, its superposition also describes the same
state
• It is the essential unit for Quantum Computing.
 Quantum bits or QUBITS
• A Qubit can be in linear
quantum superposition of both
the states at the same time.
• We can label the states |0> and
|1>, its superposition also
describes the same state
• Each qubit can be represented
as a linear combination of 0
and 1 in this way:
 Quantum bits or QUBITS
• A Quantum Bit (Qubit) is a two-level quantum
system.
• A qubit is not limited to representing just a 0 or a 1.
• Instead, it can represent a combination of both 0
and 1 at the same time.
• This is called superposition. This means that a
qubit can be in a range of probabilities for 0 and 1
at the same time.
• We can label the states |0> and |1>.
• Qubit states are represented by Bra - Ket
Notation or Dirac Notation

• We can label the Quantum states |0> and |1>.

• ket 0-

• ket 1
 The Power of Qubits
• Mathematically, the number of bits required to
match the computing power of qubits is as follows:
n qubits = 2n bits or an exponential relationship
• If we consider two classical bits, we know that they
can be either 1 or 0, so together they can take on the
following values:00,01,10,11
• However, two entangled qubits can take all of those
values at once, because of the entanglement, so in
this case 2 qubits can take the value of 4 bits.
 The Power of Qubits
• If we consider three classical bits, they can be
any of the following combined entries:
0, 0, 0 1, 0, 0
0, 1, 0 1, 1, 0
0, 0, 1 1, 0, 1
0, 1, 1 1, 1, 1
• So, in this case there are 8 combinations, but
this can be fully described using 3 qubits (again
because they are entangled).
 The Power of Qubits
• To understand the power of qubits, let's consider a
simple example. Suppose you have a classical computer
with 4 bits. It can represent numbers from 0 to 15 (2^4).
• However, a quantum computer with 4 qubits can
represent all 16 possible states simultaneously. This
parallelism is what makes quantum computing so
enticing for solving complex problems that are
infeasible for classical computers.
• https://quantumtech.blog/2021/11/14/quantum-
superposition-and-entanglement/
Classical Bit vs. Quantum Bit
 Quantum
• Quantum – The word “Quantum” refers to
quantum mechanics which explains the
behavior and properties of atomic or
subatomic particles, such as electrons,
neutrinos, and photons.
 Quantum mechanics
• Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory
in physics that describes the behavior of
nature at the scale of atoms and
subatomic particles.
 Need for quantum computers
• Quantum Information Processing (QIP) is the
study of how to use quantum computers to
process information. It involves developing
algorithms and protocols that can take
advantage of the unique properties of
quantum mechanics to solve problems faster
and more efficiently than classical computers.
 Quantum Algorithms
• Quantum algorithms leverage the principles of
quantum mechanics to perform specific
computations more efficiently than classical
algorithms.
• The Key to Unlocking Quantum Computing's
Potential
• These are algorithms designed to run on a quantum
computer. Quantum algorithms are expected to be
much faster than classical algorithms for certain
problems, such as factoring large numbers.
 Quantum Information
• Quantum information refers to the application
of quantum mechanics principles to
information processing.
• Unlike classical bits, which can exist in a state
of 0 or 1, quantum bits or qubits can exist in a
superposition of both 0 and 1 simultaneously.
This unique property, along with entanglement
and other quantum phenomena, enables
quantum information processing.
Principles of quantum computing
 Superposition
• Superposition states that quantum state can be
represented as a sum of two or more other quantum states.
• A qubit can be in both 0 and 1 state at the same time.
When multiple qubits act together, they can process
multiple options simultaneously. This allows them to
process information much faster than a classical computer.
 Quantum Entanglement
• Entanglement is an observed physical phenomenon where a
pair or group of qubits can be in a quantum state that cannot
be described independently. The measurement of the physical
properties like momentum, position, spin, polarization are
perfectly correlated among entangled qubits; irrespective of
the distance between them.
 Decoherence

• Decoherence occurs when the quantum

behavior of qubits decays. The quantum state
can be disturbed instantly by vibrations or
temperature changes. This can cause qubits to
fall out of superposition and cause errors to
appear in computing. It's important that
qubits be protected from such interference by,
for instance, supercooled refrigerators,
insulation, and vacuum chambers.
 Observation
• Superposition and entanglement only exist as
long as quantum particles are not observed or
measured. If you observe the quantum state
you can get information, but it results in the
collapse of the quantum system.
Quantum computing components

In classical computers, bits, registers, and logic gates are the building blocks
of the hardware.
In quantum computers it is qubits, quantum registers, and reversible gates.
 Quantum computing components
• Quantum computers have hardware and software, similar to a
classical computer.
Quantum hardware
• Quantum hardware has three main components.
1.Quantum data plane
The quantum data plane is the core of the quantum computer
and includes the physical qubits and the structures required to hold
them in place.
2.Control and measurement plane
The control and measurement plane converts digital signals
into analog or wave control signals. These analog signals perform
the operations on the qubits in the quantum data plane.
 Quantum computing components
3.Control processor plane and host processor
• The control processor plane implements the quantum
algorithm or sequence of operations. The host processor
interacts with the quantum software and provides a digital
signal or classical bits sequence to the control and
measurement plane.
Quantum software
• Quantum software implements unique quantum algorithms
using quantum circuits. A quantum circuit is a computing
routine that defines a series of logical quantum operations on
the underlying qubits. Developers can use various software
development tools and libraries to code quantum algorithms.
Quantum computing components
Qubits
• Qubits are the basic units of the quantum
memory which, in contrast to classical bits that
can be either 0 or 1, can hold both 0 and 1
state thanks to superposition.
• For example, 8 classical bits are enough to
represent any number between 0 and 255. On
the other hand 8 qubits can represent all
numbers between 0 and 255 at the same time.
• Photonics
• Photons have a natural isolation property due
to their weak interactions with the surrounding
environment, which makes them a great
candidate to carry information, represent
qubits, and operate at room temperature.
• Another advantage is that photonic quantum
computers can be integrated into existing fiber
optic-based telecommunications infrastructure.
Quantum computing components
• Trapped ions
• Quantum hardware that uses trapped ion
qubits typically rely upon microwave or optical
signals transmitted through free space or
waveguides and delivered to the location of
the qubits. Current QC prototypes of trapped-
ion consist of a chain of 5 to 20 static ions in a
single potential well.
Quantum computing components
Semiconducting material
• Qubits can be simulated by manipulating individual
electrons in semiconducting materials such as
selenium or germanium, or defected materials
such as diamonds, aluminum nitride or silicon
carbide.
• Applying microwaves and magnetic fields to these
materials will allow them to exhibit superposition,
entanglement, and other quantum properties.
Quantum computing components
Superconducting material
• Superconducting qubit systems are controlled
using microwave and low-frequency electrical
signals, both of which are communicated
through wires that run into cooling
refrigerators to reach the qubits inside the
controlled environment
Quantum computing components
Quantum registers
• A quantum register is a set of qubits, and it
holds all possible configurations of input data
at the same time. In other words, applying a
quantum algorithm to an n-qubit register will
get the QC to compute all possible 2^n
combinations of 0/1 states “in parallel”.
Quantum computing components
Quantum reversible gates
• A reversible gate is the one whose input can
be reconstructed just by looking at the output.
For example, in classical computation the NOT
inverter gate is reversible, whereas the XOR
gate is irreversible because inputs cannot be
identified by looking at the output.
Quantum processing unit
• A quantum processing unit (QPU) is a
computational unit that relies on quantum
principles to perform a task. the QPU includes the:
• QRAM (register + gates)
• Quantum control unit (QCU) which drives the
system to the desired state.
• Classical controller interface which defines the
interaction between the host CPU and the QPU
How does a developer interact with the quantum computer?

• To program a quantum computer, the

programmer will send the algorithms via a
host system, typically called “host processor”.
A host processor is a classical computer which
has a high bandwidth connection to the QCU.
The host runs a conventional operating system
to allow the user interaction with the
quantum processor.
 Types of quantum technology
Gate-based ion trap processors
• A gate-based quantum computer is a device that takes input data
and transforms it according to a predefined unitary operation. The
operation is typically represented by a quantum circuit and is
analogous to gate operations in traditional electronics. However,
quantum gates are totally different from electronic gates.
• Trapped ion quantum computers implement qubits using electronic
states of charged atoms called ions. The ions are confined and
suspended above the microfabricated trap using electromagnetic
fields. Trapped-ion based systems apply quantum gates using lasers
to manipulate the electronic state of the ion. Trapped ion qubits use
atoms that come from nature, rather than manufacturing the qubits
synthetically.
 Gate-based superconducting processors

• Superconductivity is a set of physical properties that you can

observe in certain materials like mercury and helium at very
low temperatures.
• In these materials, you can observe a characteristic critical
temperature below which electrical resistance is zero and
magnetic flux fields are expelled. An electric current through a
loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no
power source.
• Superconducting quantum computing is an implementation of
a quantum computer in superconducting electronic circuits.
Superconducting qubits are built with superconducting electric
circuits that operate at cryogenic temperatures.
 Photonic processors

• A quantum photonic processor is a device that

manipulates light for computations. Photonic
quantum computers use quantum light
sources that emit squeezed-light pulses, with
qubit equivalents that correspond to modes of
a continuous operator, such as position or
momentum.
 Neutral atom processors

• Neutral atom qubit technology is similar to

trapped ion technology. However, it uses light
instead of electromagnetic forces to trap the
qubit and hold it in position. The atoms are
not charged and the circuits can operate at
room temperatures
 Rydberg atom processors

• A Rydberg atom is an excited atom with one or

more electrons that are further away from the
nucleus, on average. Rydberg atoms have a
number of peculiar properties including an
exaggerated response to electric and magnetic
fields, and long life. When used as qubits, they
offer strong and controllable atomic
interactions that you can tune by selecting
different states.
 Quantum annealers

• Quantum annealing uses a physical process to

place a quantum system's qubits in an absolute
energy minimum. From there, the hardware
gently alters the system's configuration so that its
energy landscape reflects the problem that needs
to be solved. The advantage of quantum
annealers is that the number of qubits can be
much larger than those available in a gate-based
system. However, their use is limited to specific
cases only.
Types of quantum computer
• Superposition – quantum particles exist in many possible states at the same time. So a
particle is described as a “superposition” of all those possible states. They fluctuate until
observed and measured. Superposition underpins a number of potential quantum
computing applications.
• Entanglement – is what Einstein called “spooky action at a distance.” Two or more
quantum objects can be linked so that measurement of one dictates the outcomes for
the other, regardless of how far apart they are. Entanglement underpins a number of
potential quantum communications applications.
• Observation – Superposition and entanglement only exist as long as quantum particles
are not observed or measured. If you observe the quantum state you can get
information, but it results in the collapse of the quantum system.
• Decoherence
• Decoherence occurs when the quantum behavior of qubits decays. The quantum state
can be disturbed instantly by vibrations or temperature changes. This can cause qubits
to fall out of superposition and cause errors to appear in computing. It's important that
qubits be protected from such interference by, for instance, supercooled refrigerators,
insulation, and vacuum chambers.
 Why Quantum Computing?
Commercialization of a quantum use case
 Why quantum computing?
• Quantum computing’s potential for significant
speedup over classical computers
 Quantum bits or QUBITS
• Qubit can be represented as a linear
combination of ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩:
∣ψ⟩ = α∣0⟩ + β∣1⟩,
where, α and β are complex numbers.
∣α∣2 + ∣β∣2 = 1.
• The probability that the qubit will be measured
in the state ∣0⟩ is ∣α∣2 and the probability that
it will be measured in the state ∣1⟩ is ∣β∣2.
 Comparing Units of Computation

Classical Quantum
Computing Computing
Bits Qubi Complex
Numbers

0 tsα +β
b = {0,
1
States States Superposition
1} (Unit Vectors) (Linear
Combination)
State is
Deterministi State is :|
c Probabilistic : |2