Modulation &

Demodulation of Signals
By
Afrin Ahmed
Sine Wave & its Characteristics
 Much of the analysis in communication systems involves the use of
sinusoidal trigonometric functions.
 The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog
signal.
 When we visualize it as a simple oscillating curve, it’s change over
the course of a cycle is smooth and consistent, a continuous, rolling
flow. Figure below shows a sine wave.
 Each cycle consists of a single arc above the time axis followed by a
single arc below it.

Figure: A sine wave

10.2
Sine Wave & its Characteristics
 Sine waves are especially important in information
sources
− because natural phenomena produce sine waves
− when a microphone picks up an audible tone, the output is a
sine
− electromagnetic radiation can be represented as a sine wave

 Sine waves correspond to a signal that oscillates in time.

 A sine wave can be represented by three parameters:

• Peak amplitude,
• Frequency, and
• Phase.
10.3
Sine Wave & its Characteristics
Frequency:
 It is the number of oscillations per unit time (usually seconds). In other
words, frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.
 A 40-Hz signal has one-half the frequency of an 80-Hz signal; it
completes 1 cycle in twice the time of the 80-Hz signal, so each cycle also
takes twice as long to change from its lowest to its highest voltage levels.
 Change in a short span of time means high frequency.
 Change over a long span of time means low frequency.
 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.
 If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.
 Frequency is formally expressed in Hertz (Hz), which is cycle per second.

10.4
Sine Wave & its Characteristics
Period:
 Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs
to complete 1 cycle.
 Period is formally expressed in seconds.
 Period and frequency are the inverse of each other:
f=1/T and T=1/f
 Figure below shows two signals and their frequencies.

Figure: Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,

but different frequencies 10.5
Sine Wave & its Characteristics
Amplitude:
 It refers to the difference between the maximum and minimum
signal heights.
 The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its
highest intensity, proportional to the energy it carries. For
electric signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts.
 Figure below shows two signals and their peak amplitudes.

Figure: Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,

but different amplitudes 10.6
Sine Wave & its Characteristics
Phase:

 Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0.

That is, it refers to how far the start of the sine wave is shifted
from a reference time.
 Phase describes the amount of that shift. It indicates the status
of the first cycle.
 Phase is measured in degrees or radians [360° is 2π rad; 1
degree is 2π /360 rad, and 1 rad is 360/(2π )].
 A phase shift of 360° corresponds to a shift of a complete
period; a phase shift of 180° corresponds to a shift of one-half of
a period; and a phase shift of 90° corresponds to a shift of one-
quarter of a period.
 Figure shows three sine waves with the same amplitude and
frequency, but different phases.

10.7
Sine Wave & its Characteristics
Phase:

Figure: Three signals with the same amplitude and frequency,

but different phases. 10.8
Sine Wave & its Characteristics
Phase:
Looking at figure above, we can say that
− A sine wave with a phase of 0° starts at time 0 with a zero
amplitude. The amplitude is increasing.
− A sine wave with a phase of 90° starts at time 0 with a peak
amplitude. The amplitude is decreasing.
− A sine wave with a phase of 180° starts at time 0 with a zero
amplitude. The amplitude is decreasing.
 Another way to look at the phase is in terms of shift. We can say
that
− A sine wave with a phase of 0° is not shifted.
− A sine wave with a phase of 90° is shifted to the left by 1/4
cycle. However, note that the signal does not really exist
before time 0.
− A sine wave with a phase of 180° is shifted to the left by ½
cycle. However, note that the signal does not really exist
before time 0.

10.9
Sine Wave & its Characteristics
Wavelength:
 Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling
through a transmission medium. Wavelength binds the period or
the frequency of a simple sine wave to the propagation speed of
the medium.
 It is the length of a cycle as a signal propagates across a
medium and is determined by the speed with which a signal
propagates.
 Figure below shows the wavelength of a signal.

Figure: Wavelength and period

 While the frequency of a signal is independent of the medium,

the wavelength depends on both the frequency and the
medium.
10.10
Sine Wave & its Characteristics
Wavelength:
 Wavelength is a property of any type of signal. In data
communications, we often use wavelength to describe the
transmission of light in an optical fiber. The wavelength is the
distance a simple signal can travel in one period.
 Wavelength can be calculated if one is given the propagation
speed (the speed of light) and the period of the signal. However,
since period and frequency are related to each other, if we
represent wavelength by λ, propagation speed by c (speed of
light), and frequency by f, we get

 The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on

the medium and on the frequency of the signal. For example, in
a vacuum, light is propagated with a speed of 3x108 m/s. That
speed is lower in air and even lower in cable.
 The wavelength is normally measured in micrometers (microns)
instead of meters.
 For example, the wavelength of red light (frequency= 4 x 1014)
in air is:
10.11
Sine Wave & its Characteristics
Composite Signals:
 Simple sine waves have many applications in our daily life. For
example:
− We can send a single sine wave to carry electric energy from
one place to another. For example, the power company sends a
single sine wave with a frequency of 60 Hz to distribute electric
energy to houses and businesses.
− We can use a single sine wave to send an alarm to a security
center when a burglar opens a door or window in the house.
 In the first case, the sine wave is carrying energy; in the second,
the sine wave is a signal of danger.
 If we had only one single sine wave to convey a conversation
over the phone, it would make no sense and carry no
information. We would just hear a buzz.
 Therefore, a single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data
communications; we need to send a composite signal, a signal
made of many simple sine waves.
 According to Fourier analysis, any composite signal is a
combination of simple sine waves with different frequencies,
amplitudes, and phases. 10.12
Sine Wave & its Characteristics
Composite Signals:
 A composite signal can be periodic or nonperiodic:
− If it is periodic, it can be decomposed into a series of simple
sine waves with discrete frequencies.
− if the composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition gives
a combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.
 The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between
the highest and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.
 Figure below illustrates a composite signal formed by adding
two simple sine waves.

10.13
Sine Wave & its Characteristics
Importance of Composite Signals:
 When we discuss modulation and demodulation, we will
understand one of the primary reasons:
− the signals that result from modulation are usually composite
signals.
 A mathematician named Fourier discovered that
− it is possible to decompose a composite signal into its
constituent parts: a set of sine functions, each with a
frequency, amplitude, and phase.
 The analysis by Fourier also shows that if the composite signal
is periodic, the constituent parts will also be periodic.
 Most systems use composite signals to carry information.
 A composite signal is created at the sending end and the
receiver decomposes the signal into the simple components

10.14
Sine Wave & its Characteristics
Carrier Wave:
 In telecommunications, a carrier wave, or carrier is a waveform
(usually sinusoidal) that is modulated (modified) with an input
signal for the purpose of conveying information.
 This carrier wave is usually of much higher frequency than the
input signal.
 The purpose of the carrier is usually either to transmit the
information through space as an electromagnetic wave (as in
radio communication), or to allow several carriers at different
frequencies to share a common physical transmission medium
by frequency division multiplexing (as is used in, for example, a
cable television system).
 Frequency modulation (FM) and amplitude modulation (AM) are
commonly used methods to modulate the carrier. The frequency
for a given radio or television station is actually the carrier
wave's center frequency.

10.15
What is Modulation?
 Modulation is a process of mixing a message signal (called
modulating signal) with a sinusoid (called carrier signal) to
produce a new signal (called modulated signal). This new signal
will have certain benefits over an un-modulated signal, especially
during transmission.
 Message signal: The signal that is used in modulating the carrier
signal (or sinusoidal signal) is known as the message signal or
modulating signal. The message or modulating signal may be
either:
 analog – denoted by m(t)
 digital – denoted by d(t) – i.e. sequences of 1's and 0's
 The message signal could also be a multilevel signal, rather
than binary.
 Carrier signal: The sinusoidal signal that is used in the modulation
is known as the carrier signal, or simply "the carrier". It is
important to notice that a simple sinusoidal carrier contains no
information of its own. The carrier could be a 'sine wave' or a
'pulse train'.

10.16
What is Modulation?
 In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process
of varying one or more properties of a high-frequency periodic
waveform, called the carrier signal, in proportion to a modulating
signal which typically contains information to be transmitted.
Therefore, modulation is the technique of superimposing the
message signal on the carrier signal.
 The three key parameters of a periodic waveform are its amplitude
("volume"), its phase ("timing") and its frequency ("pitch"). Any of
these properties can be modified in accordance with a low
frequency signal to obtain the modulated signal.
 A device that performs modulation is known as a modulator and a
device that performs the inverse operation of modulation is known
as a demodulator (sometimes detector or demod). A device that
can do both operations is a modem (from "modulator–
demodulator").
 Modulation is performed at the transmitter, and the reverse
operation (demodulation/detection) is performed at the receiving
end.
10.17
What is Modulation?
 Let us assume that:
m(t) = message (or information or modulating) signal
c(t) = carrier signal
s(t) = modulated signal (transmitted signal)
 Figure below show the block diagram of a typical modulation
system.
 The carrier c(t) is a pure
sinusoidal signal generally
given as:
c(t) = Ac cos(2πfct + θc(t ))
Figure: Typical modulation system
where Ac=Amplitude, fc=
Frequency, θc(t)=Phase
 Examination of c(t) indicate that there are 3 parameters which may
be varied:
1. The amplitude Ac,
2. The frequency fc, and
3. The phase θc(t)
 These parameters can be varied in analog or digital form. When
10.18
varied in digital form, it is referred to as “Shifting & Keying”.
What is Demodulation?
 Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation to recover the
message signal m(t) or d(t) at the receiver.
 When the modulator and the demodulator are located in the same
apparatus, the system is called a MODEM (MOdulator,
DEModulator).
 When we do not use modulation, the system is called a "baseband
communication" system. At that time, the baseband signal is
transmitted directly.

Figure: Typical modulation and demodulation system

10.19
Types of Analog Modulation
 Using the message signal m(t) to vary the amplitude (Ac),
frequency (fc), and phase (θc(t)) of the carrier signal leads to 3
basic types of analog modulation schemes respectively known as:
1. Amplitude Modulation:
 If the analog message signal m(t) controls amplitude A c of the
carrier signal c(t), then the modulation is called amplitude
modulation (AM).

2. Frequency Modulation:
 If the analog message signal m(t) controls the frequency f c of
the carrier signal c(t), then the modulation is called
frequency modulation (FM).

3. Phase Modulation:
 If the analog message signal m(t) controls the phase θ c(t) of
the carrier signal c(t), then the modulation is called phase
modulation (PM).

10.20
Types of Digital Modulation
 Considering now a digital message d(t):
 If the message d(t) controls amplitude – gives amplitude shift keying
ASK.
 If the message d(t) controls frequency – gives frequency shift keying
FSK.
 If the message d(t) controls phase – gives phase shift keying PSK.
 Here d(t) is a binary or 2 level signal representing 1's and 0's.
 The types of modulation produced, i.e. ASK, FSK and PSK are
sometimes described as binary or 2 level, e.g. Binary FSK, BFSK,
BPSK, etc. or 2 level FSK, 2FSK, 2PSK etc.
 Thus there are 3 main types of digital modulation:
1. Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
2. Frequency shift keying (FSK)
3. Phase shift keying (PSK)

10.21
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is
controlled or varied (modulated) in proportion to the modulating or
message signal while the frequency and phase are kept constant.
 Here, the frequency of the carrier signal is usually much greater
than the highest frequency of the input message signal.
 Amplitude of modulated signal is proportional to the message
signal.
 Pitfall\issue of AM: channel noise can corrupt the amplitude easily.
 Figure below shows the amplitude modulation technique.

5
5 5

0
0 0

-5
-5 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 -5
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
1
1 1

0
0 0

-1 -1
-1 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
1 1 1

0 0 0

-1 -1 -1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

m(t): c(t): s(t):

The modulating signal The carrier signal AM signal/modulated signal: s(t)
10.22
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 In amplitude modulation, a
large amplitude sine wave
represents a 1 and zero
amplitude represents a 0, as
shown in the figure.

 In the figure below, one

amplitude represents a 0,
another amplitude represents a
1.

10.23
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Usage of Amplitude Modulation
 Amplitude is susceptible to interference
 This technique in not normally used in modems
 A variation of this technique is used in AM radio transmission
 Analog-to-analog modulation takes place

10.27
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
 In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal is controlled or varied in proportion to the
modulating or message signal while the amplitude and phase are kept constant.
 Here, the transmitter sends different frequencies for a 1 than for a 0. This technique is also called FSK
- frequency shift keying.
 The frequency of the modulated wave increases, when the amplitude of the message signal
increases. Similarly, the frequency of the modulated wave decreases, when the amplitude of the
modulating signal decreases. Note that, the frequency of the modulated wave remains constant and
it is equal to the frequency of the carrier signal, when the amplitude of the modulating signal is zero.

10.28
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband FM based on the values of modulation
index β

Narrowband FM:
• This frequency modulation has a small bandwidth when compared to wideband FM.
• The modulation index β is small, i.e., less than 1.
• Its spectrum consists of the carrier, the upper sideband and the lower sideband.
• This is used in mobile communications such as police wireless, ambulances, taxicabs, etc.

Wideband FM features:
• This frequency modulation has infinite bandwidth.
• The modulation index β is large, i.e., higher than 1.
• Its spectrum consists of a carrier and infinite number of sidebands, which are located around it.
• This is used in entertainment, broadcasting applications such as FM radio, TV, etc.
Usage of Frequency Modulation
 Variations in frequency are easy to detect
 They are less susceptible to interference
 FM and variations of this technique are used in modems
 Easy to implement full duplex transmission under FM
 A variation of the FM technique described here is used in FM radio
transmission

10.32
 Phase Modulation (PM)
 It is a type of modulation where the phase of the carrier signal is modulated (changed) in
proportion to the message signal while the amplitude and frequency are kept constant.
 The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points, where the phase shift in a wave
can take place. The instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal changes the phase of
the carrier signal. When the amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one direction and if
the amplitude is negative, the phase changes in the opposite direction.

10.33
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
Usage of Phase Modulation
 Phase modulation is used in wireless technology.
 Phase modulation is also used in signal transmission system in
army. It helps to transmit video signal along with the audio signal.
 Thus phase modulation is used in communication system by army
by making the use of special receiver devices which can receive
and demodulate both audio and video signal simultaneously.

10.36
 Solved Problems
Problem 1: A sinusoidal modulating waveform of amplitude 5V and a frequency of 2KHz is applied to FM
generator, which has a frequency sensitivity of 40Hz/volt. Calculate the frequency deviation, modulation index,
and bandwidth.

Solution:Given,Amplitude of modulating signal, Am=5V

Frequency of modulating signal, fm=2KHz
Frequency sensitivity, kf=40Hz/volt
We know the formula for Frequency deviation as
Δf = kf . Am
Δf = 40×5=200Hz
Therefore, frequency deviation, Δf is 200Hz

The formula for modulation index is

Β = Δf / fm
Β = 200/2000 = 0.1
Here, the value of modulation index, β is 0.1, which is less than one. Hence, it is Narrow Band FM.

The formula for Bandwidth of Narrow Band FM is the same as that of AM wave.
BW=2fm
BW=2×2K=4KHz
Therefore, the bandwidth of Narrow Band FM wave is 4KHz.
Solved Problems
Solved Problems
Signal Digitization
Digital Signal: A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of
discrete values; at any given time it can only take on one of a finite number of
values. Whereas an analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time
varying feature of the signal is a representation of some other time varying
quantity i.e., analogous to another time varying signal. The following techniques
can be used for Analog to Digital Conversion:

The most common technique to change an analog signal to digital data is called
pulse code modulation (PCM). A PCM encoder has the following three processes:

• Sampling
• Quantization
• Encoding
Sampling Techniques
Sampling – The first step in PCM is sampling. Sampling is a process of measuring the
amplitude of a continuous-time signal at discrete instants, converting the continuous
signal into a discrete signal. There are three sampling methods:

The sampling of a signal is done in several ways. Generally, there are three types of
sampling techniques:

• Instantaneous Sampling or Ideal Sampling

• Natural Sampling
• Flat Top Sampling
Sampling Techniques
Ideal Sampling: In ideal Sampling also known as Instantaneous sampling pulses from the analog
signal are sampled. This is an ideal sampling method and cannot be easily implemented.

• Ideal sampling is also known as instantaneous or impulse train sampling.

• In this method, the sampling signal is a periodic impulse train.
• The area of each impulse in the sampled signal is equal to the instantaneous value of the input
signal x(t).
Sampling Techniques
Since the width of the pulse approaches zero, the instantaneous sampling gives a train of impulses
of height equal to the instantaneous value of the input signal x(t) at the sampling instant.
We know that the train of impulses may be represented as,

This is known as sampling function

The sampled signal g(t) is expressed as the multiplication of x(t) ans δTs(t). Thus,

The Fourier transform of the ideally sampled signal given by above equation may be expressed as,
Sampling Technique
Disadvantages:
• Due to very harrow samples, transmitted power is very small signal to noise ratio
is low. Thus Sampled pulses may get lost in the background noise.

• No ideal filters available to cut off signals

Sampling Techniques
Natural Sampling: Natural Sampling is a practical method of sampling in which pulse have finite
width equal to T. The result is a sequence of samples that retain the shape of the analog signal.
• Natural sampling is also called practical sampling.
• In this sampling technique, the sampling signal is a pulse train.
• In natural sampling method, the top of each pulse in the sampled signal retains the shape of the
input signal x(t) during pulse interval.
Sampling Techniques
Now, the sampled signal g(t) may also be described mathematically as
g(t) = c(t) . x(t)
Here, c(t) is the periodic train of pulse of width t and frequency fs.
We know that the exponential Fourier series for any periodic waveform is expressed as,

Also, for the periodic pulse train of c(t), we have,

So we have,
Sampling Techniques

Merits
• Generation of natural sampling is easy
• practical low pass filter can be used

Demerits
• Amplitude of sampled pulses is varying for large value of 'T', crosstalk is introduced
In electronics, crosstalk is any phenomenon by which a signal transmitted on one circuit or channel of a
transmission system creates an undesired effect in another circuit or channel.
 Sampling Techniques
Flat top sampling: In comparison to natural sampling flat top sampling can be easily obtained. In this
sampling technique, the top of the samples remains constant by using a circuit. This is the most
common sampling method used.
• The flat top sampling is also the practical sampling technique.
• In the flat top sampling, the sampling signal is also a pulse train.

of the input signal 𝑥(t) at the start of the samples.

• The top of each pulse in the sampled signal remain constant and is equal to the instantaneous value
Sampling Techniques
In flat-top sampling or rectangular pulse sampling, the top of the samples remains constant and is
equal to the instantaneous value of the baseband signal x(t) at the start of sampling.
The duration or width of each sample is τ and sampling rate is equal to fs = 1 / Ts.

This means that the width of the pulse in g(t) is determined by the width of h(t) and the sampling
instant is determined by delta function.

In the fig, the starting edge of the pulse represents the point where baseband signal is sampled and
width is determined by function h(t). Therefore, g(t) will be expressed as,
Sampling Techniques
Merits
• Better signal to noise ratio
• Generation of flat top sampling is easy
• Practical filter can be used

Demerits
• Aperture Effect
Nyquist Theorem
Nyquist Theorem: One important consideration is the sampling rate or frequency. According
to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal. It is also known as the minimum sampling rate.
Sampling Techniques

• Ws = Sampling Frequency
• Wm = Max Frequency of Message signal
Solve the Problems
Quantization
Quantization – The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values between the
maximum and minimum amplitudes of the signal. The set of amplitudes can be infinite with
non-integral values between two limits. The following are the steps in Quantization:

• We assume that the signal has amplitudes between Vmax and Vmin
• We divide it into L zones each of height d where, d= (Vmax- Vmin)/ L

Types: There are two types of Quantization - Uniform Quantization and Non-uniform
Quantization.

• The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are uniformly spaced is termed as a
Uniform Quantization.
• The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are unequal and mostly the relation
between them is logarithmic, is termed as a Non-uniform Quantization.
Quantization Error
For any system, during its functioning, there is always a difference in the values of
its input and output. The processing of the system results in an error, which is the
difference of those values. The difference between an input value and its quantized
value is called a Quantization Error.

Sampled Value 0 0.707 1 0.707 0 -0.707 -1

Quantized Value 0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0 -0.5 -1

Digital Signal 10 11 11 11 10 01 00

Quantized Error 0 0.207 0.5 0.207 0 -0.207 0

 Quantization

The value at the top of each sample in the graph shows the actual amplitude.
• The normalized pulse amplitude modulation(PAM) value is calculated using the formula amplitude/d.
• After this we calculate the quantized value which the process selects from the middle of each zone.
• The Quantized error is given by the difference between quantized value and normalised PAM value.
• The Quantization code for each sample based on quantization levels at the left of the graph.
PULSE CODE MODULATION
Encoding – The digitization of the analog signal is done by the encoder. After each sample is
quantized and the number of bits per sample is decided, each sample can be changed to an n bit
code. Encoding also minimizes the bandwidth used. Note that the number of bits for each sample is
determined from the number of quantization levels. If the number of quantization levels is L, the
number of bits is n bit = log 2 L.

Modulation - It is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier signal in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the message signal.

PCM - A PCM system converts an analog input signal to the digital signal, which is a combination
of the binary sequence created from the binary digits 0 and 1. An analog signal is a continuous wave,
and the PCM signal is a wave with a series of digits. Thus, we can define PCM as the modulation
method that transmits the pulses in the form of binary digits representing a code number.
PCM Structure
 PCM Structure
• LPF: As the name implies, a filter passes a certain range of frequencies and reject the other. A Low Pass
Filter (LPF) rejects the higher frequencies from the input signal and passes the other frequencies, specified
by the filter. It is done to avoid any aliasing or distortion in the input signal.
• Sampler: Sampling refers to the process of measuring the instantaneous value of the continuous signal is the
discrete form. The input signal of the PCM system is analog, which is a continuous time-varying signal. The
analog signal passes through the sampler, where it is sampled periodically. The sampler measures the
instantaneous value of the analog signal, converts it to the discrete symbols and sends it to the quantizer.
• Quantizer: After passing through the sampler, the samples are subjected to quantization operation. It reduces
the number of discreet symbols. The quantizer performs the process of data compression and data
redundancy. It adds some redundant bits and compresses the data to make it suitable for storage and
transmission.
• Encoder: An encoder is a device that converts the analog signal to digital pulses. It responds to each sample
by generating a binary pulse or pattern. The combination of Low pass filter, quantizer, and encoder works as
an A/D or Analog to Digital Converter. It also reduces the transmission bandwidth.
• Communication channel: A communication channel is a medium between the transmitter and the receiver. It
transmits a PCM signal from the transmitter to the receiver. It also includes a repeater that can regenerate the
signal, improve signal strength, and reduce noise effects.
PCM Structure
• Quantizer: The quantizer decides whether the received pulse is positive or negative. According to the decision, it
regenerates the pulse train and sends it to the decoder. The quantizer first quantizes the samples pulses at the
transmitting stage. The quantization process for the second quantizer now becomes easy. It needs only to detect the arrival
of the digital pulses. It is easy for the quantizer to detect the code in the form of binary numbers that contains only two
digits, 0 and 1. The process becomes complicated when the quantized samples from the first quantizer are directly sent to
the second quantizer. It then needs to detect a level from the multiple levels (0 to 7). If a repeater is used, it simply raises
the level of the regenerated pulse and is sent to the other block of the communication system.

• Decoder: The digitally encoded signal arrives at the receiver. It first removes the noise from the signal. The quantization
process does not allow the easy separation of the signal and the noise. Hence, it is essential to remove the noise from the
signal at the decoding stage. It works similar to the demodulation process and converts the binary pulses to the original
form or the analog signal.

• Reconstruction Filter: The reconstruction filter, decoder, and quantizer work together as a D/A (Digital to Analog
Converter). A reconstruction filter helps in the smooth conversion of the digital signal back to the original analog signal.
Further, it sends to the reconstruction filter, which helps in the smooth conversion of the digital signal back to the original
analog signal.
Thus, we can conclude that PCM system converts the analog signal to the digital signal, removes the noise, and converts it
back to the analog signal as the output.
Advantages of PCM
• High noise immunity: Noise immunity refers to the system's ability to remain unaffected from the noise or
interference. PCM has high noise immunity because the information is transmitted in the coded form (digital
form) rather than varying the width or position of the pulse, which is less affected by the noise.
• Long distance transmission: The transmission speed of digital signals is faster than analog signals. Hence,
PCM can be used for the long-distance transmission process.
• Easy encoding: The encoding process of PCM is easy due to the digital transmission of data.
• Secure transmission: The data transmission process in PCM is secure due to the presence of encoders and
decoder. We can also use various coding techniques through which only a specific user can decode the signal
at the output.
• Easy multiplexing: Multiplexing refers to the multiple transmissions of signals on the same communication
channel. The sampling and quantization in digital modulation allows the transmission of multiple signals
effectively. TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) is the common type of multiplexing used in PCM.
• High efficiency: It has high efficiency due to the digital mode of transmission.
• Use of repeaters: We can use repeaters in PCM system, while the same cannot be used in analog
communication. The repeater regenerates the signal, improves the signal strength and reduces the noise
affects.
• Data storage: The digital data can be easily stored.
 Disadvantage of PCM
• Complex process
PCM is a complex process as compared to the analog modulation techniques. It is because a signal
in PCM passes through various operations in a communication system.

• Large bandwidth
It requires large bandwidth than analog communication systems. It is due to the presence of a
sampler and quantizer in the PCM system.

• Quantization noise
When an analog signal is converted to the digital signal, a time gap between the input and the
quantized value causes the quantization noise. It can be removed by using the noise reduction
system in PCM.
Applications of PCM
• Space communication
In space communication, the signals are sent from the space or atmosphere to the earth, which is used as a basis
for communication. It requires small transmitted power with transmission upto long distances. Hence, due to
PCM's high noise immunity and long-distance transmission ability, it is preferred in space communication.

• Satellite transmission
PCM was the first digital transmission method used commercially. The ability of the PCM signal to effectively
use TDM for multiplexing, long-distance transmission, and high noise immunity makes it as a modulation
method suitable for satellite transmission.

• Telephony
Digital signals can be transmitted upto long distance with the help of fiber optic cables. Similarly, PCM system
can effectively transmit the telephone signal upto long distances without any noise interference. An audio signal
for a single phone is encoded at around 8000 samples per second.

• Compact discs
The audio data on the compact disc or CD is generally in the form of PCM. The samples of the analog waveform
are periodically sampled and quantized, which helps in storing the digital data.
Need for Modulation
 There are two principal motivating reasons for modulation:
1. Matching the transmission characteristics of the medium, and
considerations of power and antenna size, which impact
portability.
2. The desire to multiplex, or share, a communication medium
among many concurrently active users.
 Some message signals are not always suitable for direct
transmission, but the modulated signal may be more suitable.
 A communication channel only operates at a certain frequency
range. Modulation translates a signal from its baseband to the
operating range of the channel. In telecommunications,
modulation is used for conveying a message signal (for example a
digital bit stream or an analog audio signal) inside another signal
(called carrier signal) that can be physically transmitted.

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Need for Modulation
 An important reason to modulate a signal is to allow the use of a
smaller antenna.
 Physical channel is usually not well suited to the transmission of
baseband (low frequency) signal, because an efficient projection
of baseband signal requires a huge antenna of dimension
comparable with the wavelength of the signal, typically a quarter
wavelengths in the case of a tower antenna.
 Since the wavelength of the (electromagnetic) wave is inversely
proportional to the frequency, the higher the frequency, the
smaller the antenna. For example, the wavelength of a 1 GHz
electromagnetic wave in free space is 30 cm, whereas a 1 kHz
electromagnetic wave is one million times larger, 300 km, which
would make for an impractically huge antenna and transmitter
power to transmit signals of that frequency!
 Modulation shifts the baseband signal up to a much higher
frequency, which has much smaller wavelengths and allows the
use of a much smaller antenna.

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Need for Modulation
 In order to match the baseband signal to the physical and
regulatory specifications of a transmission channel, one typically
has to go through a modulation process.
 Even if we could arrange for direct transmission of the baseband
signal (after digital-to-analog conversion), there would be issues
related to the required transmitter power, the attenuation caused
by the atmosphere at this frequency, interference between this
transmission and everyone else’s, and so on. Regulatory
organizations such as the U.S. Federal Communications
Commission (FCC), and equivalent bodies in other countries,
impose constraints on transmissions, which further restrict what
sort of signal can be applied to a physical channel.

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Need for Modulation
 By modulating different signals to different frequency bands, they
can be transmitted simultaneously over the same channel.
 Analog and digital modulation facilitate frequency division
multiplexing (FDM), where several low pass information signals
are transferred simultaneously over the same shared physical
medium, using separate passband channels (several different
carrier frequencies).

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Aim of Analog & Digital Modulation
 The aim of digital modulation (In digital modulation, an analog
carrier signal is modulated by a discrete signal) is to transfer a
digital bit stream over an analog bandpass channel, for example
over the public switched telephone network (where a bandpass
filter limits the frequency range to between 300 and 3400 Hz), or
over a limited radio frequency band.
 The aim of analog modulation is to transfer an analog baseband
(or lowpass) signal, for example an audio signal or TV signal, over
an analog bandpass channel at a different frequency, for example
over a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV network
channel.

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Thank You