Lecture 4

Channels, Power Spectrum, DSB-

SC
Communication Channel Distortion
Signal quality is compromised due to imperfections in the transmission
medium. This is called transmission impairment.

There are three main types of transmission impairment: signal

distortion, attenuation, and noises.

The three main reasons for signal distortion in transmission impairment

are:
1.Environmental parameters
2.Properties of the transmission medium
3.Distance between the transmission end and receiving end

The signal distortion in transmission impairment can be of two types:

frequency distortion and phase or delay distortion.
Transmission Impairment in Data
Communication
When signals travel through transmission mediums, some sort of signal
quality deterioration occurs. Signal quality is compromised due to
imperfections in the transmission medium, it’s called transmission
impairment. It causes differences in transmitted and received signals. The
quality, shape, and strength of the transmitted signals do not match with the
received signals, and this reveals the existence of transmission impairment in
the communication. Transmission impairment is present in analog as well as
digital signal transmission.

Impairments in Analog Signal Communication

In analog signal communication, the effect of transmission impairment
presents itself as signal quality degradation, which is a serious concern when
it comes to signal integrity in mission-critical data communication systems.

Impairments in Digital Signal Transmission

Digitally transmitted signals experience bit error at the receiving end due to
transmission impairment. This type of transmission impairment can lead to
glitches, loss of data, or communication errors in systems.
Distinguishing Signal Distortion From
Attenuation

Attenuation is a natural consequence of signal transmission over long distances

Attenuation is the loss of signal strength in networking cables or connections

There can sometimes be a misunderstanding regarding the classification of transmission

impairments. Below are some differentiating points that might help differentiate signal
distortion from attenuation in transmission impairment.

1.Signal distortion changes the shape of the signals, whereas attenuation keeps the shape
intact.
2.The attenuation transmission impairment is easy to remove, but mitigating signal
distortion is difficult.
3.The amplification method of removing attenuation aggravates the signal distortion at
the receiving end.

The signal distortion in transmission impairment is critical to audio and video signal
transmission. Non-ideal communication channels are responsible for transmission
impairment. Introducing equalizers into communication systems can improve the
performance of non-ideal transmission mediums by compensating the signal distortion as
well as signal attenuation.
Communication Channel Distortion

Channels are subject to impairments:

► Nonlinear distortion (e.g., clipping)

► Random noise (independent or signal dependent)

► Interference from other transmitters

► Self interference (reflections or multipath)

Channel Equalization
Channel equalization is a technique used in communication systems to
mitigate the effects of channel distortion and improve the quality of
transmitted signals. In the frequency domain, the equalization process can be
described by the equation:

Here's a breakdown of the terms:

• Heq(f): Equalizer transfer function. It represents the inverse of the channel
transfer function H(f) to compensate for the channel distortion. The goal is
to design Heq​(f) such that it counteracts the effects of the channel.
• Y(f): Output of the equalizer. It is the signal that has undergone the
equalization process.
• X(f): Input signal. It is the original transmitted signal.
• H(f): Channel transfer function. It characterizes the distortion introduced
by the communication channel
Channel Equalization
Linear distortion can be compensated for by equalization.
He (f) = ⇒ Xˆ ( f ) = He (f)Y (f) =
q X(f) q
The equalization filter accentuates frequencies that are attenuated by the channel.
However, if y(t) includes noise or interference,
y(t) = x(t) + z(t)

If the received signal y(t)y(t) includes noise or interference, and y(t) is

modeled as the sum of the transmitted signal x(t) and the additive noise z(t)
the channel equalization equation can be expressed as follows:

•Y(f): Output / received signal that has undergone the equalization process.
•X(f): Transmitted signal.
•Z(f): Noise or interference in the channel. This term represents any undesired
signal components introduced during transmission.
Channel Equalization Example
h(t) = u(t)e−t, x(t) is square wave, y(t) = h(t) ∗
x(t). Channel Impulse
Channel Frequency
1 Response Response
2

0.8
1

0.6
0
0.4

1
0.2

0 2
0 2 4 6 50 0 50

Input Corrupted
0.8
Signal Signal
1 0.6

0.5 0.4

0.2
0
0
0.5 0.2

1 0.4

0.6
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2 4 6
 Channel Equalization Example (cont.)
Equalizing filter has transfer function 1 + j2πf, approximates
differentiator.
1 + j2⇡f \(1 + j2⇡f)
350 1 2
250
300
200
0
150

100
1
50

0 2
50 0 50 0 2 6
4
Impulse Response
120
of Equalization 1.5 Equalized
Filter Signal
100 1

80 0.5

60 0

40 0.5

20 1

0 1.5
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
Parseval's theorem
Parseval's theorem states that the energy of a signal in the time domain equals
the energy of the transformed signal in the frequency domain.

• g(t): Time-domain signal (energy signal).

• G(f): Frequency-domain representation of the signal obtained through the
Fourier Transform.
• ∣g(t)∣2: The square of the magnitude of the signal in the time domain,
representing the instantaneous power of the signal.
• ∣G(f)∣2: The square of the magnitude of the signal in the frequency domain,
representing the power spectral density.
• The integral on the left side is the total energy of the signal in the time
domain, and the integral on the right side is the total energy of the signal in
the frequency domain. The factor of 2π is often included in the Fourier
Transform pairs, which is why you might see variations of Parseval's theorem
with 2π2π in the equations.
Signal Energy and Energy Spectral
Density
Parseval’s theorem for an energy signal
g(t) is ∞ ∞
2
Eg = ∫ |g(t)|
2
dt ∫ |G(f)|
−∞ − ∞ df
=
The signal has the same total energy E g in the time domain or
frequency domain.
The essential bandwidth as the range of frequencies with most
of the energy of the signal. The definition of ”most” depends
on the application. One choice might be 90%.
If G(f) is a lowpass signal, and E B is the energy from − B to B ,
then B
2
E B = ∫ |G(f)|
−B
df
Then the essential bandwidth is
the B such that
E B /Eg =
0.9
90% of the
G(f)
energy

B B f
10% of the
energy

Other definitions of
width
► 95% or 99%
energy
► Half amplitude
width
► Half power width
► 50% energy
 Signal Transformation
• A signal can be converted between the time and frequency domains with a
pair of mathematical operators called a transform. An example is the
Fourier transform, which decomposes a function into the sum of a number
of sine wave frequency components. The 'spectrum' of frequency
components is the frequency domain representation of the signal.

• The inverse Fourier transform converts the frequency domain function

back to a time function.

• In mathematics, a Fourier series is a way to represent a continuous-time

signal (or wave-like function) as the sum of simple sine waves.

• A time-domain graph shows how a signal changes with time, whereas a

frequency-domain graph shows how much of the signal lies within each
given frequency band over a range of frequencies.

• Frequency-domain analysis is widely used in such areas as

communications, geology, remote sensing, and image processing. 6.13
 Fourier Series Representation of Signals

Fourier Series for Periodic Signals:

 We know that signals that repeat over and over are said to
be periodic. A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be
periodic if it satisfies the condition
x(t) = x(t + T) for all t
Where T is a positive constant called period of the signal.
 The fundamental period T0 of x(t) is the smallest positive
value of T for which the above relation is satisfied, and f0=
1/T0 is referred to as the fundamental frequency.
 Two basic examples of periodic signals are:
- real sinusoidal signal

- complex exponential signal

where is called the fundamental angular
frequency. 6.14
 Fourier Series Representation of Signals

Fourier Series for Periodic Signals:

 The Fourier series representation of a complex
exponential periodic signal x(t) with fundamental period
T0 is given by:

 where ck are known as the complex Fourier

coefficients and are given by

 where ∫T0 denotes the integral over any one period and
0 to T0 or –T0/2 to T0/2 is commonly used for the
integration. Setting k= 0 in Eq. (5.5), we have

 which indicates that c0 equals the average value of x(t)

over a period.

6.15
 Conditions to be Fourier Series

 It is known that a periodic signal x(t) has a Fourier series

representation if it satisfies the following Dirichlet conditions:
1. x(t) is absolutely integrable over any period, that is,

2. x(t) has a finite number of maxima and minima within any finite
interval of t.
3. x(t) has a finite number of discontinuities within any finite
interval of t, and each of these discontinuities is finite.

6.16
 Exponential Fourier Series
• A periodic signal can be represented over a certain interval of time in terms of the linear
combination of orthogonal functions. If these orthogonal functions are exponential functions,
then it is called the exponential Fourier series
[two mathematical functions such that with suitable limits the definite integral of their product is zero .]

• The exponential Fourier series is the most widely used form of the Fourier series. In this
representation, the periodic function x(t) is expressed as a weighted sum of the complex
exponential functions. It is the convenient and compact form of the Fourier series and have
extensive application in communication theory.

• For any periodic signal 𝑥(𝑡), the exponential form of Fourier series is given by,

• Where, 𝜔0= 2𝜋⁄𝑇 is the angular frequency of the periodic function.

Exponential Fourier Series
 Fourier Transform

Fourier Transform exist for

• Energy Signal
• Power Signal
• Impulse Related Signal

Fourier Transform does not exist for

• Neither power nor energy signal
Fourier Transform
 Let x(t) be an integrable continuous-time signal.
 The Fourier transform X(ω) of this signal is given by the
following relation:

Where ω is called angular frequency and ω = 2Πf.

 In the above relation, we see that the independent
variable t (representing time) is transformed into ω
(representing frequency).
 The functions x(t) and X(ω) are often referred to as a
Fourier integral pair or Fourier transform pair.

6.21
Inverse Fourier Transform
 Let X(ω) be the Fourier transform of an integrable
continuous-time signal x(t).
 Under suitable condition, x(t) can be reconstructed from
X(ω) using inverse Fourier transform , as:

6.22
 Properties of Fourier Transform: Linearity

Addition of two functions corresponding to the addition of the two

frequency spectrum is called the linearity. If we multiply a function by a
constant, the Fourier transform of the resultant function is multiplied by
the same constant. The Fourier transform of sum of two or more functions
is the sum of the Fourier transforms of the functions.

Case I.
If h(t) -> H(f) then ah(t) -> aH(f)
Case II.
If h(t) -> H(f) and g(t) -> G(f) then h(x)+g(x) -> H(f)+G(f)
Properties of Fourier Transform: Time Reversal

that if a function 𝑥(𝑡) is reversed in time domain, then its

The time reversal property of Fourier transform states

spectrum in frequency domain is also reversed, i.e., if

x(t)↔X(jω)

Then, according to the time-reversal property of Fourier

transform,

x(−t)↔X(−jω)
 Properties of Fourier Transform: Time Scaling
Statement – The time-scaling property of Fourier transform states that if a signal is
expanded in time by a quantity (a), then its Fourier transform is compressed in
frequency by the same amount. Therefore, if
Properties of Fourier Transform: Time-Shifting

𝑥(𝑡) is shifted by 𝑡0 in time domain, then the frequency spectrum is modified by a

Statement – The time shifting property of Fourier transform states that if a signal

linear phase shift of slope (−j𝜔𝑡0). Therefore, if,

Properties of Fourier Transform: Frequency Shifting

Statement – Frequency shifting property of Fourier transform states that the

multiplication of a time domain signal x(t) by an exponential (ejω0t) causes the
frequency spectrum to be shifted by ω0. Therefore, if
Signal Representation
Baseband Communication
The baseband is the frequency band of the original signal.
► Telephones: 300–3700 Hz
► High-fidelity audio: 0–20 KHz
► Television (NTSC) video: 0–4.3 MHz
► Ethernet (10 Mbs): 0–20 MHz

Baseband communication usually requires wire (single,

twisted pair, coax).
Multiple baseband signals cannot share a channel without
time division multiplexing (TDM).
 Carrier Communication
Carrier communication uses modulation to shift spectrum of
signal.
► Wireless communication requires frequencies higher than
baseband
► Multiple signals can be sent at same time using different
frequencies: frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

In carrier communication, the signal modulates a

sinusoidal carrier. The signal modifies the amplitude,
frequency, or phase of carrier.

s(t) = A(t) cos 2πfc(t)t + φ(t)

► amplitude modulation: A(t) is proportional to m(t)

► frequency modulation: f c (t) is proportional to m(t)
DSB-SC
DSB-SC
This aperiodic signal can be represented as the summation of these complex
exponentials. For that, let's define the new periodic signal from this aperiodic
signal. This new signal g(t) repeats itself after the one-time period. And since
this signal gT(t) is the periodic signal, so we can represent this signal by the
summation of the complex exponentials. And here, the contribution of each
complex exponential can be found using this expression. The periodic signal is
integrated over the one-time period. But if we integrate this aperiodic signal from
minus infinity to plus infinity, then it will give us the same result,
So, in this modulation scheme, since both upper and the lower
sidebands are transmitted and since there is no discrete carrier
frequency at f0, so this carrier modulation is known as the double
sideband suppressed carrier. So, in this type of modulation, carrier
frequency f0 should be greater than or equal to the maximum
frequency of the message signal. And in this case, it should be greater
than or equal to B.
Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier
(DSB-SC)
Demodulation at Receiver
e(t) = m(t) cos2 (2τf0t) = m(t) [ ]
= + x cos ()
= + [ M(f-) + M(f+) ]
We can think of modulation as frequency domain
convolution 1
F [m(t) cos(2πfc t)] = M ( f) ∗ 1 δ(f + f c ) + δ(f − c
2 2
f )
M(f)

1 δ(f + f c ) 1 δ(f — f c )
2 2

f
—f c fc

1M ( f + f c) 1M ( f — f c)
2 2

f
—f c fc
To demodulate this signal, consider what happens if we multiply again
by cos(2πfct). Again, we can think of this as a convolution in the
frequency domain:
1M ( f + f ) 1M ( f — f )
c c
2 2

—f c 0 fc f

1 δ(f + f ) 1 δ(f — f )
c c
2 2

—f c 0 fc f

Lowpass
1 M ( f + 2f ) 1 Filter 1 M ( f — 2f )
c M(f) c
4 2 4

—2fc —f c 0 fc 2fc f
DSB SC
BW of DSB SC
DSB SC
Thank you