Computer Networks: A Systems Approach, 5e

Larry L. Peterson and Bruce S. Davie

Chapter 4 Advanced Internetworking

Copyright 2010, Elsevier Inc. All rights Reserved

Chapter 4

Problems

How do we build a routing system that can handle hundreds of thousands of networks and billions of end nodes? How to handle address space exhaustion of IPV4? How to enhance the functionalities of Internet?

Chapter 4

Chapter Outline

Global Internet Multicast Mobile IP

Chapter 4

Chapter Goal

Understanding the scalability of routing in the Internet Discussing IPv6 Understanding the concept of multicasting Discussing Mobile IP

Chapter 4

The Global Internet

The tree structure of the Internet in 1990

Chapter 4

The Global Internet

A simple multi-provider Internet

Chapter 4

Interdomain Routing (BGP)

Internet is organized as autonomous systems (AS) each of which is under the control of a single administrative entity Autonomous System (AS)

corresponds to an administrative domain examples: University, company, backbone network

A corporations internal network might be a single AS, as may the network of a single Internet service provider
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Chapter 4

Interdomain Routing

A network with two autonomous system

Chapter 4

Route Propagation

Idea: Provide an additional way to hierarchically aggregate routing information is a large internet.

Improves scalability

Divide the routing problem in two parts:

Routing within a single autonomous system Routing between autonomous systems

Another name for autonomous systems in the Internet is routing domains

Two-level route propagation hierarchy

Inter-domain routing protocol (Internet-wide standard) Intra-domain routing protocol (each AS selects its own)

Chapter 4

EGP and BGP

Inter-domain Routing Protocols

Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)

Forced a tree-like topology onto the Internet Did not allow for the topology to become general

Tree like structure: there is a single backbone and autonomous systems are connected only as parents and children and not as peers

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

Assumes that the Internet is an arbitrarily interconnected set of ASs. Todays Internet consists of an interconnection of multiple backbone networks (they are usually called service provider networks, and they are operated by private companies rather than the government) Sites are connected to each other in arbitrary ways

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Chapter 4

BGP

Some large corporations connect directly to one or more of the backbone, while others connect to smaller, non-backbone service providers. Many service providers exist mainly to provide service to consumers (individuals with PCs in their homes), and these providers must connect to the backbone providers Often many providers arrange to interconnect with each other at a single peering point

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Chapter 4

BGP-4: Border Gateway Protocol

Assumes the Internet is an arbitrarily interconnected set of AS's.

Define local traffic as traffic that originates at or terminates on nodes within an AS, and transit traffic as traffic that passes through an AS.
We can classify AS's into three types:

Stub AS: an AS that has only a single connection to one other AS; such an AS will only carry local traffic (small corporation in the figure of the previous page). Multihomed AS: an AS that has connections to more than one other AS, but refuses to carry transit traffic (large corporation at the top in the figure of the previous page). Transit AS: an AS that has connections to more than one other AS, and is designed to carry both transit and local traffic (backbone providers in the figure of the previous page).

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Chapter 4

BGP

The goal of Inter-domain routing is to find any path to the intended destination that is loop free

We are concerned with reachability than optimality Finding path anywhere close to optimal is considered to be a great achievement

Why?
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Chapter 4

BGP

Scalability: An Internet backbone router must be able to forward any packet destined anywhere in the Internet

Having a routing table that will provide a match for any valid IP address It is impossible to calculate meaningful path costs for a path that crosses multiple ASs A cost of 1000 across one provider might imply a great path but it might mean an unacceptable bad one from another provid

Autonomous nature of the domains

Issues of trust

Provider A might be unwilling to believe certain advertisements from provider B

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Chapter 4

BGP
Each AS has: One BGP speaker that advertises:

local networks other reachable networks (transit AS only) gives path information

In addition to the BGP speakers, the AS has one or more border gateways which need not be the same as the speakers The border gateways are the routers through which packets enter and leave the AS

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Chapter 4

BGP

BGP does not belong to either of the two main classes of routing protocols (distance vectors and link-state protocols) BGP advertises complete paths as an enumerated lists of ASs to reach a particular network

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Chapter 4

BGP Example

Example of a network running BGP

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Chapter 4

BGP Example

Speaker for AS 2 advertises reachability to P and Q

Network 128.96, 192.4.153, 192.4.32, and 192.4.3, can be reached directly from AS 2.

Speaker for backbone network then advertises

Networks 128.96, 192.4.153, 192.4.32, and 192.4.3 can be reached along the path <AS 1, AS 2>.

Speaker can also cancel previously advertised paths

Chapter 4

BGP Issues

It should be apparent that the AS numbers carried in BGP need to be unique For example, AS 2 can only recognize itself in the AS path in the example if no other AS identifies itself in the same way AS numbers are 16-bit numbers assigned by a central authority

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Integrating Interdomain and Intradomain Routing

Chapter 4

All routers run iBGP and an intradomain routing protocol. Border routers (A, D, E) also run eBGP to other ASs
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Integrating Interdomain and Intradomain Routing

Chapter 4

BGP routing table, IGP routing table, and combined table at router B
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Chapter 4

Routing Areas

Backbone area Area border router (ABR)

A domain divided into area

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Chapter 4

Next Generation IP (IPv6)

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Chapter 4

Major Features

128-bit addresses Multicast Real-time service Authentication and security Auto-configuration End-to-end fragmentation Enhanced routing functionality, including support for mobile hosts
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Chapter 4

IPv6 Addresses

Classless addressing/routing (similar to CIDR) Notation: x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x (x = 16-bit hex number)

contiguous 0s are compressed: 47CD::A456:0124 IPv6 compatible IPv4 address: ::128.42.1.87 provider-based geographic
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Address assignment

Chapter 4

IPv6 Header

40-byte base header Extension headers (fixed order, mostly fixed length)

fragmentation source routing authentication and security other options

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Chapter 4

Internet Multicast

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Chapter 4

Overview

IPv4

class D addresses demonstrated with MBone uses tunneling

Integral part of IPv6

problem is making it scale

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Chapter 4

Overview

One-to-many

Radio station broadcast Transmitting news, stock-price Software updates to multiple hosts

Many-to-many

Multimedia teleconferencing Online multi-player games Distributed simulations

Chapter 4

Overview

Without support for multicast

A source needs to send a separate packet with the identical data to each member of the group

This redundancy consumes more bandwidth Redundant traffic is not evenly distributed, concentrated near the sending host

Source needs to keep track of the IP address of each member in the group

Group may be dynamic

To support many-to-many and one-to-many IP provides an IP-level multicast

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Chapter 4

Overview

Basic IP multicast model is many-to-many based on multicast groups

Each group has its own IP multicast address Hosts that are members of a group receive copies of any packets sent to that groups multicast address A host can be in multiple groups A host can join and leave groups

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Chapter 4

Overview

Using IP multicast to send the identical packet to each member of the group

A host sends a single copy of the packet addressed to the groups multicast address The sending host does not need to know the individual unicast IP address of each member Sending host does not send multiple copies of the packet

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Chapter 4

Overview

IPs original many-to-many multicast has been supplemented with support for a form of one-to-many multicast One-to-many multicast

Source specific multicast (SSM) A receiving host specifies both a multicast group and a specific sending host

Many-to-many model

Any source multicast (ASM)

Chapter 4

Overview

A host signals its desire to join or leave a multicast group by communicating with its local router using a special protocol

In IPv4, the protocol is Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) In IPv6, the protocol is Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD)

The router has the responsibility for making multicast behave correctly with regard to the host

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Chapter 4

Multicast Routing

A routers unicast forwarding tables indicate for any IP address, which link to use to forward the unicast packet To support multicast, a router must additionally have multicast forwarding tables that indicate, based on multicast address, which links to use to forward the multicast packet Unicast forwarding tables collectively specify a set of paths Multicast forwarding tables collectively specify a set of trees

Multicast distribution trees

Chapter 4

Multicast Routing

To support source specific multicast, the multicast forwarding tables must indicate which links to use based on the combination of multicast address and the unicast IP address of the source Multicast routing is the process by which multicast distribution trees are determined

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Chapter 4

Distance-Vector Multicast

Each router already knows that shortest path to source S goes through router N. When receive multicast packet from S, forward on all outgoing links (except the one on which the packet arrived), iff packet arrived from N. Eliminate duplicate broadcast packets by only letting parent for LAN (relative to S) forward

shortest path to S (learn via distance vector) smallest address to break ties

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Chapter 4

Distance-Vector Multicast
Reverse Path Broadcast (RPB) Goal: Prune networks that have no hosts in group G Step 1: Determine of LAN is a leaf with no members in G

leaf if parent is only router on the LAN determine if any hosts are members of G using IGMP augment <Destination, Cost> update sent to neighbors with set of groups for which this network is interested in receiving multicast packets. only happens when multicast address becomes active.

Step 2: Propagate no members of G here information

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Chapter 4

Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM)

Shared Tree

Source specific tree

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Chapter 4

Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM)

Delivery of a packet along a shared tree. R1 tunnels the packet to the RP, which forwards it along the shared tree to R4 and R5.
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Chapter 4

Inter-domain Multicast
Multicast Source Discovery Protocol (MSDP)

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Chapter 4

Routing for Mobile Hosts

Mobile IP

home agent

Router located on the home network of the mobile hosts The permanent IP address of the mobile host. Has a network number equal to that of the home network and thus of the home agent Router located on a network to which the mobile node attaches itself when it is away from its home network

home address

foreign agent

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Chapter 4

Routing for Mobile Hosts

Problem of delivering a packet to the mobile node

How does the home agent intercept a packet that is destined for the mobile node?

Proxy ARP

How does the home agent then deliver the packet to the foreign agent?

IP tunnel Care-of-address

How does the foreign agent deliver the packet to the mobile node?

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Chapter 4

Routing for Mobile Hosts

Route optimization in Mobile IP

The route from the sending node to mobile node can be significantly sub-optimal One extreme example

The mobile node and the sending node are on the same network, but the home network for the mobile node is on the far side of the Internet Triangle Routing Problem Let the sending node know the care-of-address of the mobile node. The sending node can create its own tunnel to the foreign agent Home agent sends binding update message The sending node creates an entry in the binding cache The binding cache may become out-of-date The mobile node moved to a different network Foreign agent sends a binding warning message
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Solution

# Chapter Chapter 4 Subtitle

Summary

We have looked at the issues of scalability in routing in the Internet We have discussed IPV6 We have discussed Multicasting We have discussed Mobile IP

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