Data Communication &

Computer Networks

7. Network Layer :
Logical Addressing
Background
Switching

RQ 3
Switched Network

RQ 4
Circuit Switching
 uses a dedicated  set up (connection)
path between two takes time
stations  inefficient
 channel capacity
 once connected, dedicated for
duration of
transfer is
connection
transparent  if no data, capacity
wasted

RQ 5
Public Circuit Switched Network

RQ 6
Packet Switching
 circuit switching was designed for voice
 packet switching was designed for data
transmitted in small packets
 packets contains user data and control info
 user data may be part of a larger message
 control info includes routing (addressing) info
 Advantage: line efficiency
 single link shared by many packets over time

RQ 7
Packet Switching

RQ 8
Switching Techniques
 station breaks long message into
packets
 packets sent one at a time to the
network
 packets can be handled in two ways
 virtual circuit
 datagram

RQ 9
Virtual
Circuit
Approach

RQ 10
Datagram
Approach

RQ 11
 Virtual Circuits vs. Datagram
 virtual circuits
 network can provide sequencing and error
control
 packets are forwarded more quickly
 less reliable
 datagram
 no call setup phase
 more flexible
 more reliable
RQ 12
Links
 The physical and data link layers deliver
data within a network.

RQ 13
Network Layer
 Network layer is responsible for host-to-host
delivery of data across networks

RQ 14
Network Layer

RQ 15
IPv4 Addresses
Network layer addressing
 An Internet address or IP address
uniquely identifies a device connected
to the Internet at the network layer
 IP = Internet Protocol
 IP is the base protocol at network layer
in the Internet model or the TCP/IP
protocol suit

RQ 17
IPv4 address
 An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address
 The address space of IPv4 is 232 or
4,294,967,296.
 Represented in 4 blocks of 1 byte each

RQ 18
 Example
Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary
notation to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent
decimal number and add dots for separation.

RQ 19
Example
Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-
decimal notation to binary notation.

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary
equivalent.

RQ 20
Classful Addressing
In classful addressing, the address space
is divided into five classes:
 A
 B Unicast communication
 C
 D Multicast communication
 E Reserved for special use

RQ 21
Network ID and Host ID

RQ 22
Finding the class in dotted-
decimal notation

RQ 23
Finding the class in binary
notation

RQ 24
 Network Address
Anetwork address is different
 Network address is an from a netid. A network
address that defines the address has both netid and
network itself; it cannot hostid, with 0s for the hostid.
be assigned to a host.

RQ 25
 Mask
 Although the length of the netid and hostid
(in bits) is predetermined in classful
addressing, we can also use a mask
 The mask can help us to find the netid and
the hostid

RQ 26
Sample Internet

RQ 27
Subnetwork
 Q. What if an organisation wants to
 arrange its hosts into groups?
 break its large network into smaller
networks?

 A. Divide its network into smaller

subnetworks or subnets.

RQ 28
Subnets and Subnet Masks
 host portion of address partitioned into
subnet number and host number
 local routers route within subnetted network
 subnet mask indicates which bits are subnet
number and which are host number

RQ 29
Subnet Masks
 Routers outside a subnetted
organisation use default masks
 Routers inside the organisation use
subnet masks

RQ 30
Subnetworks

RQ 31
Supernetting
 In supernetting several blocks of
addresses (networks) are combined to
create a supernetwork of large address
range
 e.g. an organisation with 1000 computers
can be allocates four class C network
addresses to satisfy its needs
 254 x 4 >1000

RQ 32
Classless Addressing
 Problem with classful addresses
 wastage due fix blocks of addresses
 Solution: Classless addressing
 Variable length address blocks
 No classes
 CIDR = Classless Inter-Domain Routing
 Classful addressing is almost obsolete
and replaced with classless addressing.
RQ 33
 Classless address blocks
 An entity is granted a block (range) of addresses
 The size of the block (the number of addresses)
varies based on the nature and size of the entity
 Restrictions:
1. The addresses in a block must be contiguous, one
after another.
2. The number of addresses in a block must be a power
of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, ... ).
3. The first address must be evenly divisible by the
number of addresses.
RQ 34
Mask in Classless Addressing
 In IPv4 addressing, a block of addresses
can be defined as x.y.z.t/n in which x.y.z.t
defines one of the addresses and the /n
defines the mask.
 The address and the /n notation completely
define the whole block (the first address, the
last address, and the number of addresses).
 The first address in the block can be found
by setting the rightmost 32-n bits to 0s.
RQ 35
Subnetted
Network

RQ 36
 Example 1
A block of addresses is granted to a small
organization. We know that one of the addresses is
205.16.37.39/28. What is the first address in the
block?
Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32−28 rightmost bits to 0, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100000
or
RQ 205.16.37.32. 37
 Example 2
 An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with
190.100.0.0/16 The ISP needs to distribute these
addresses to three groups of customers as follows:
a) 1st group has 64 customers; each needs 256 addresses.
b) 2nd group has 128 customers; each needs 128 addrs.
c) 3rd group has 128 customers; each needs 64 addresses.

 Design the subblocks and find out how many addresses

are still available after these allocations.

RQ 38
Example 2

RQ 39
Network Address Translation
 IP addresses are scarce.
 The long-term solution is for the whole
Internet to migrate to IPv6
 128-bit addresses
 The quick fix is NAT (Network Address
Translation)
 described in RFC 3022

RQ 40
NAT – basic idea
 Assign each company a single IP
address (or at most, a small number of
them) for Internet traffic.
 Within the company, every computer
gets a unique IP address (private)
 When a packet exits the company and
goes to the Internet, an address
translation takes place.
 (private -> global)
RQ 41
 Private addresses

 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255: 172.16.0.0/12

 Where does the /12 come from?

12 bits in common
10101100 . 00010000 . 00000000 . 00000000 – 172.16.0.0
10101100 . 00011111 . 11111111 . 11111111 – 172.31.255.255
-------------------------------------------------------------
10101100 . 00010000 . 00000000 . 00000000 – 172.16.0.0/12
RQ 42
NAT
 Private network uses private addresses
 NAT router translates private addresses
to global address
 The private network is transparent to
the rest of the Internet

RQ 43
Address Translation

RQ 44
Translation table

RQ 45
NAT
 Using one IP address
 1 private host can access an external host at a
time
 Using a pool of IP addresses
 N global addresses = N private hosts can access
same external host at a time
 Using both IP addresses and port numbers
 many private hosts can access many external
host at a time

RQ 46
 PAT – Port Address Translation

 PAT (Port Address Translation) allows you to use a single Public

IP address and assign it up to 65,536 inside hosts (4,000 is more
realistic).
 PAT translates and records the TCP/UDP source port address to
track inside Host addresses.
 Also known as Network Address and Port Translation (NAPT)
RQ 47
 PAT Example

NAT/PAT table
maintains translation
of:
DA, SA, SP
DA SA DP SP DA SA DP SP

128.23.2.2 10.0.0.3 80 1331 Data 128.23.2.2 179.9.8.80 80 3333 Data

IP Header TCP/UDP IP Header TCP/UDP

1 Header 2 Header

DA SA DP SP DA SA DP SP

128.23.2.2 10.0.0.2 80 1555 Data 128.23.2.2 179.9.8.80 80 2222 Data

IP Header TCP/UDP IP Header TCP/UDP

1 RQ Header 2 Header 48
 PAT – Port Address Translation

 With PAT multiple private IP addresses can be translated by a single

public address (many-to-one translation).
 This solves the limitation of NAT which is one-to-one translation.

RQ 49
IPv6 Addresses
IPv6 Addresses
 Despite all short-term solutions (e.g.
NAT/PAT), address depletion is still a
problem for the Internet.
 This and other problems in the IP
protocol itself have been the
motivation for designing IPv6.

RQ 51
IPv6 Addresses
 128 bits long
 assigned to interface
 single interface may have multiple unicast
addresses
 three types of addresses:
 unicast - single interface address
 anycast - one of a set of interface addresses
 multicast - all of a set of interfaces

RQ 52
IPv6 address structure
 An IPv6 address is 128 bits long
 It is usually presented in hexadecimal
colon notation

RQ 53
Abbreviated IPv6 addresses

RQ 54
Type prefixes for IPv6 addresses

RQ 55
Multicast address in IPv6

RQ 56
Reserved addresses in IPv6

RQ 57
Local addresses in IPv6

RQ 58