Topic 2: Nature of

Materials
ME 380
 Nature of Materials

Major topics:
1.Atomic structure and the arrangement of
the elements?
2.Types of interatomic bonding
3.Ordering of atoms and ions

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 2

 Nature of Materials
Manufacturing is a process that transforms materials

• The ability to predict the behavior of a

material when force, heat, etc. are
applied determines success of
operation

• Material properties related to:

• Electronic configuration
• Atomic/molecular bonding
• Atomic/molecular structure (or lack
thereof)
Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 3
 Atomic models-FYI
• Many phenomena involving electrons in solids could not be explained
in terms of classical mechanics.

• From quantum mechanics we know electronic energies are quantized

and energy states are discrete.

• Early attempt to describe atoms in terms of both

L position (electron orbital) and energy (quantized
energy levels).
K
• Assumed electron revolve around the atomic
nucleus in discrete orbitals.

• Position of any particular electron is more or less

well defined in terms of its orbital.

Bohr atomic model

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 4

 Electron Energy States-
Electrons...
FYI
• have discrete energy states
• tend to occupy lowest available energy state.

4d
4p N-shell n = 4

3d
4s

Energy 3p M-shell n = 3
3s
Adapted from Fig. 2.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
2p L-shell n = 2
2s

1s K-shell n = 1
Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 5
 SURVEY OF ELEMENTS-
FYI
Electron configuration represents manner in which electron levels are filled.
Element Atomic # Electron configuration
Hydrogen 1 1s 1
Helium 2 1s 2 (stable)
Lithium 3 1s 2 2s 1
Beryllium 4 1s 2 2s 2
Adapted from Table 2.2,
Boron 5 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1 Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
Carbon 6 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2
... ...
Neon 10 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 (stable)
Sodium 11 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1
Magnesium 12 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2
Aluminum 13 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1
... ...
Argon 18 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 (stable)
... ... ...
Krypton 36 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4s 2 4p 6 (stable)

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 6

 • Valence electrons – those in unfilled
shells
• Filled shells more stable
• Valence electrons are most available
for bonding and tend to control the
chemical properties

• example: C (atomic number = 6)

1s2 2s2 2p2

valence electrons

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 7

 Atomic Structure
• Valence electrons determine all of
the following properties
1) Chemical
2) Electrical
3) Thermal
4) Optical
5) Mechanical

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 8

 Periodic Table

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 9

 The Periodic Table-FYI

• Elements arranged in increasing atomic number in 7 horizontal rows (periods).

• All elements in given column (group) have similar valencies and chem. & phys. properties.
• Generally electronegativity increases from left to right and bottom left to top right
Group IA - alkali metals 1 excess electron
Group IIA – alkaline earth metals 2 excess electrons
Group IIIB – IIB transition metals, incomplete d shells
Group IIIA – VA intermediate by virtue of electronic structures (some are semiconductors, Si)
Group VI A – 2 electrons deficient from stable configuration
Group VII – 1 electron deficient
Group 0 – inert gases

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 10

 Atomic Bonding in Solids

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 11

 Primary Bonding

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 12

 Ionic bond – metal + nonmetal

donates accepts
electrons
electrons

Dissimilar electronegativities

ex: MgO Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 O 1s2 2s2 2p4

Mg2+ 1s 2s 2p
2 2 6 [Ne] 3s2
O 1s 2s 2p 2- 2 2 6

[Ne] [Ne]

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 13

 Ionic Bonding
• Occurs between + and - ions.
• Requires electron transfer.
• Large difference in electronegativity required.
• Example: NaCl

Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal)
unstable unstable
electron

Na (cation)
stable
+ - Cl (anion)
Coulombic stable
Attraction

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 14

 Covalent Bonding
• similar electronegativity  share electrons
• bonds determined by valence – s & p orbitals dominate bonding
• Example: CH4

shared electrons
H
C: has 4 valence e-, CH 4
from carbon atom
needs 4 more
H: has 1 valence e-, H C H
needs 1 more
shared electrons
Electronegativities H from hydrogen
are comparable. atoms

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 15

 Metallic Bonding
• Metallic Bond:
• Delocalized as electron cloud
• Results in good electrical and thermal conductivity

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 16

 SECONDARY BONDING
Arises from interaction between dipoles
• Fluctuating dipoles (London forces)
ex: liquid H2
asymmetric electron H 2 H 2
clouds

+ - + - H H H H

secondary secondary
bonding bonding
• Permanent dipoles-molecule induced

+ - secondary + -
-general case:
bonding Adapted from Fig. 2.14,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
H Cl secondary H Cl
-ex: liquid HCl
bonding

secon
-ex: polymer dary
bond secondary bonding
i ng

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 17

 Hydrogen Bonding
• Occurs in molecules containing hydrogen
atoms covalently bonded to another atom
(e.g., H2O)
• Since electrons to complete shell of hydrogen
atom are aligned on one side of nucleus,
opposite side has a net positive charge that
attracts electrons in other molecules

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 18

 Ordering of Atoms and
molecules
• Atoms and molecules are the
building blocks of matter
• When materials solidify from the
molten state, they tend to
aggregate tightly, arranging
themselves into one of two forms:
• Crystalline
• Noncrystalline

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 19

 Crystalline Structure
Manner in which atoms are located at
regular and recurring positions in three
dimensions
• Unit cell - basic geometric grouping of
atoms that is repeated
• The pattern may be replicated millions of
times within a given crystal
• Characteristic structure of virtually all
metals, as well as many ceramics and
some polymers
Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 20
 Three Crystal Structures in
Metals
• Three types of crystal structure: (a)
body-centered cubic, (b) face-centered
cubic, and (c) hexagonal close-packed

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 21

 Crystal Structures for Common
Metals
• Room temperature crystal structures for
some of the common metals:
• Body‑centered cubic (BCC)
• Chromium, Iron, Molybdenum, Tungsten
• Face‑centered cubic (FCC)
• Aluminum, Copper, Gold, Lead, Silver, Nickel
• Hexagonal close‑packed (HCP)
• Magnesium, Titanium, Zinc

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 22

 Imperfections (Defects) in
Crystals
• Nearly all engineering materials possess
defects
• Defects are often introduced during
solidification
• Imperfections can also be introduced
purposely; e.g., addition of alloying
ingredient in metal
• Types of defects: (1) point defects, (2) line
defects, (3) surface (interfacial) defects

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 23

 Point Defects
Imperfections in crystal structure involving either a
single atom or a small number of atoms

Point defects: (a) vacancy, (b) ion‑pair vacancy (Schottky

Defect), (c) interstitial, (d) displaced ion (Frenkel Defect).

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 24

 Line Defects
Connected group of point defects that
forms a line in the lattice structure
• Most important line defect is a
dislocation, which can take two forms:
• Edge dislocation
• Screw dislocation

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 25

 Edge Dislocation

Edge of an extra plane of atoms that exists in

the lattice

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 Screw Dislocation

Spiral within the

lattice structure
wrapped around
an imperfection
line, like a screw
is wrapped
around its axis

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 27

 Interfacial or Surface
Defects
Imperfections that extend in two
directions to form a boundary
• Examples:
• External: the surface of a crystalline
object is an interruption in the lattice
structure
• Internal: grain boundaries are internal
surface interruptions

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 28

Polycrystalline Nature of Metals

• A block of metal may contain

millions of individual crystals, called
grains
• Such a structure is called
polycrystalline
• Each grain has its own unique lattice
orientation
• But collectively, the grains are randomly
oriented in the block
Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 29
Grains and Grain Boundaries in Materials

• Most engineering materials are polycrystalline.

• Each "grain" is a single crystal.
• If grains are randomly oriented, overall component properties
are not directional.
• Grain sizes typ. range from 1 nm to 2 cm
(i.e., from a few to millions of atomic layers).
Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 30
 Single vs. Polycrystals
• Single Crystals E (diagonal) = 273 GPa
Data from Table 3.7,
-Properties vary with Callister & Rethwisch 3e

direction: anisotropic.
-Example: the modulus
of elasticity (E) in BCC iron:
E (edge) = 125 GPa
• Polycrystals

-Properties may/may not 200 mm Adapted from Fig.

5.19(b), Callister &
vary with direction. Rethwisch 3e.
(Fig. 5.19).
-If grains are randomly
oriented: isotropic.
(Epoly iron = 210 GPa)
-If grains are textured,
anisotropic.

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 31

 20 nm

Electron microscopy image showing grain boundaries

5 nm

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 32

 Polymorphism
• Two or more distinct crystal structures for the
same material (allotropy/polymorphism)
iron system
titanium
liquid
, -Ti
1538ºC

-Fe
carbon BCC

diamond, graphite 1394ºC

FCC -Fe

912ºC

BCC
-Fe

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 33

 Noncrystalline (Amorphous)
Structures
• Amorphous materials do not have long-range
atomic/molecular order
• A metal loses its crystalline structure when
melted
• Some engineering materials are amorphous in
their solid states
• Glass
• Many plastics
• Rubber

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 34

 Features of Amorphous
Materials

• Two features differentiate

noncrystalline (amorphous) from
crystalline materials:
1. Absence of long‑range order in molecular
structure
2. Differences in melting and thermal expansion
characteristics

Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 35

 Crystalline vs. Amorphous
materials

• Difference in structure between: (a)

crystalline and (b) noncrystalline materials
• Crystal structure is regular, repeating;
amorphous materials are less tightly packed
and randomly oriented

(a) (b)
Nature of Materials Prof. Abiade 36