CH 12 Problem Solving

Human Cognitive
Processes: psyc 345
Ch. 11: Problem Solving
Takashi Yamauchi
© Takashi Yamauchi (Dept. of Psychology, Texas A&M University)
Problem solving
• Mental processes that occur when people
work toward determining the solution to a
problem.
• Gestalt approach
• Information processing approach
What is a problem?
• Problems:
• Math, chemistry, physics problems;
• Writing a term paper, selecting the movie
you want to watch
• Finding a roommate
• Finding a solution for a chess problem
Problem Definition
• Well-defined problem
– Math, physics, or chess problems
– You can get clear solutions, and procedures to
reach the solutions. The rule is clear.
• Ill-defined problem
– The rule is not clear. Don’t have “correct”
solutions. Problems in everyday situations
(e.g., making your own career choice)
Gestalt approach
• How people represent a problem matters a
lot.
• Solving a problem involves a reorganization
or restructuring of problem representation.
Fig. 11-2, p. 398
Insight problems
• Insight problems:
– Those that require Aha! like insights.
– Solutions for insight problems usually occur

suddenly.
– Solutions for insight problems often require

gestalt process (re-organizing representation)
Triangle problem: show Join the three groups of the
how you can move three chains into a single close loop of
of the circles (dots) to chains. Opening a link costs 2
get the triangle to point cents and closing a link costs 3
to the bottom of the cents. You have only 15 cents.
page.
Fig. 11-3, p. 399

Your
assessment of
how close you
are to a
solution
Fig. 11-4, p. 400

Obstacles to problem solution
• What prevents us from finding a solution?
• Functional fixedness
– Focusing on and keep using familiar uses of an
object
Candle problem:
Using the materials shown below (matches in a match box,
some tacks), find a way to mount a candle on the corkboard
on the wall so it will burn without dripping.
Fig. 11-6, p. 402
Tie the strings that are hanging from the ceiling.
The strings are separated so that you can’t reach
one of them while holding the other. You have a
chair and pliers.
Fig. 11-7, p. 402

Use jugs A, B, and C
and get the quantities
suggested in the right
column. Try to use jugs
no more than
necessary.
Fig. 11-8, p. 403

• Fixation
• We often get fixated, and keep applying the
same approach to solve problems.
Problem solving: the information
processing approach
• Newell & Simon (1972)
• Artificial Intelligence approach
• Treat problem solving as a search process.

Tower of Hanoi problem:
Fig. 11-10, p. 405

Problem Space
Fig. 11-11, p. 406

Means-end analysis:
Reduce the difference
between the initial and
goal states by reaching
sub-goals (intermediate
goals).
Fig. 11-12, p. 407

Problem I
• Drive from College Station to New York Ci
ty
Constraints
• Time constraint:
– have only 5 days
• Economical constraint
– spend no more than $500
• Psychological constraints:
– have fun. Want to see many cool cities,
beautiful mountains, lakes, villages.
Sub-goal
Sub-goal
goal state
Sub-goal
NYC
Initial state
College
Station
• But problem solving is more than just
finding the path to reach a goal.
• How problems are stated influence our

problem solving a lot.
Restrictions:
1. Only one acrobat may jump at a time.
2. Whenever two acrobats are on the same flagpole, one must be standing on
the shoulder of the other.
3. An acrobat may not jump when some is standing on his or her shoulders.
4. A bigger acrobat may not stand on the shoulders of a smaller acrobat.
Initial state Goal state

• Results:
• Participants took an average of 5.63
minutes to solve the problem.
• But when the experimenter changed the

problem slightly, the problem became much
more difficult.
Restrictions:
1. Only one acrobat may jump at a time.
2. Whenever two acrobats are on the same flagpole, one must be standing on
the shoulder of the other.
3. An acrobat may not jump when some is standing on his or her shoulders.
4. A smaller acrobat may not stand on the shoulders of a bigger acrobat.
Initial state Goal state

• Implication:
– The second problem became much harder

because the idea that a smaller acrobat cannot
stand on the shoulders of a bigger acrobat is
inconsistent with what we know about the
world.
– Problem solving is much more than just

analyzing problem space.
Checkboard problem:
A checkboard consists of 64 squares. These 64 squares can be
completely covered by placing 32 dominos on the board so each
domino covers two squares. If we eliminate two corners of the
checkboard, can we cover the remaining squares with 31 dominos?
Yes, or not? Explain why yes / no.
Fig. 11-14, p. 410

Kaplan & Simon
(1990) tested 4
groups of subjects.
Each group received
different boards.
Results:
The bread and butter
board group solved
the problem fastest
and with fewest hints.
The blank board

group took much
longer and needed
many more hints.
• Why?
• When a domino is placed on the board, it is
always covering two squares that are
different (e.g., black and pink).
• There is no way to place dominos to cover
two pink squares or two black squares.
• So, if you remove two pink squares, you
can’t cover the board with dominos.
• How problems are stated and presented
affects problem solving a great deal.
• Problem solving  it is important to state

and represent problems in many different
ways.

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Human Cognitive

Processes: psyc 345

Ch. 11: Problem Solving

– Solutions for insight problems usually occur

– Solutions for insight problems often require

Fig. 11-3, p. 399

Fig. 11-4, p. 400

Fig. 11-7, p. 402

Fig. 11-8, p. 403

• Treat problem solving as a search process.

Fig. 11-10, p. 405

Fig. 11-11, p. 406

Fig. 11-12, p. 407

• How problems are stated influence our

4. A bigger acrobat may not stand on the shoulders of a smaller acrobat.

Initial state Goal state

• But when the experimenter changed the

4. A smaller acrobat may not stand on the shoulders of a bigger acrobat.

Initial state Goal state

– The second problem became much harder

– Problem solving is much more than just

Fig. 11-14, p. 410

The blank board

• Problem solving  it is important to state

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