DEVELOPMENT

Jamaica College
6A Sociology
Mr D. Martin 2021
 ▪Development – the progressive
process of human, cultural,
political, economic and social
change, which saves people’s
CONCEPTS OF lives. As development
DEVELOPMEN transformation does not follow a
T
linear progression, it does not
have a clear beginning, middle or
end, nor is the outcome clear-cut
or predictable (Mustapha, 2013)
 ▪Underdevelopment – a term
usually associated with the
underutilization of the resources
of the ‘Third World’ or countries
of the South. Undeveloped
societies have not yet
CONCEPTS OF
DEVELOPMEN developed, whereas
T underdeveloped societies have
not developed because they
have been prevented from doing
so by developed or
industrialised countries
(Mustapha, 2013)
 ▪Sustainable Development -
"Sustainable development is
development that meets the
needs of the present without
CONCEPTS OF compromising the ability of future
DEVELOPMEN generations to meet their own
T needs, guaranteeing the balance
between economic growth, care
for the environment and social
well-being” (Brundtland, 1987)
 ▪ Industrialisation – the continuous
extended uses of sophisticated
CONCEPTS OF technology designed to harness and
DEVELOPMEN develop natural resourses. This
T process usually entails urbanisation,
greater division of labour, retraining
and mechanization (Mustapha, 2013)
 ▪Modernisation – the process of
general social change brought
CONCEPTS OF about by the transition from an
DEVELOPMEN agrarian/less developed to an
T
industrial/more-developed mode
of production (Mustapha, 2013)
 ▪ Dependency – “can be defined as an
explanation of the economic
development of a state in terms of the
external influences (political, economic
and cultural) on national development
policies (Sunkel, 1969).

▪ Dependency is “an historical condition

CONCEPTS OF
which shapes a certain structure of the
DEVELOPMEN world economy such that it favors some
T countries to the detriment of others and
limits the development possibilities of the
subordinate economies…a situation in
which the economy of a certain group of
countries is conditioned by the
development and expansion of another
economy, to which their own is
 Gross Domestic Product - GDP is the monetary value of
all finished goods and services made within a country
during a specific period.
▪ There are several types of GDP measurements:
▪ Nominal GDP is the measurement of the raw data.
▪ Real GDP takes into account the impact of inflation and
allows comparisons of economic output from one year
CONCEPTS OF to the next and other comparisons over periods of time.
▪ GDP growth rate is the increase in GDP from quarter
DEVELOPMEN to quarter.
T ▪ GDP per capita measures GDP per person in the
national populace; it is a useful way to compare GDP
data between various countries.

▪ The following equation is used to calculate the GDP:

GDP = C + I + G + (X – M) or GDP = private
consumption + gross investment + government
investment + government spending + (exports –
imports).
 ▪ Gross National Product -
▪ GNP measures the output of a country's
residents regardless of the location of the
actual underlying economic activity.
▪ The formula to calculate the components
CONCEPTS OF of GNP is Y = C + I + G + X + Z.
DEVELOPMEN
▪ That stands for GNP = Consumption +
T
Investment + Government + X (net
exports) + Z (net income earned by
domestic residents from overseas
investments minus net income earned by
foreign residents from domestic
investments).
 ▪ Cost of Living - The cost of living is
the amount of money needed to sustain
a certain standard of living by affording
basic expenses such as housing, food,
taxes, and healthcare. The cost of living
CONCEPTS OF is often used to compare how
DEVELOPMEN expensive it is to live in one city versus
T another. The cost of living is tied to
wages. If expenses are higher in a city,
such as New York, for example, salary
levels must be higher so that people
can afford to live in that city.
 ▪Per Capita Income - is a
measure of the amount of
money earned per person in a
nation or geographic region. Per
capita income can be used to
determine the average per-
CONCEPTS OF
DEVELOPMEN person income for an area and
T to evaluate the standard of
living and quality of life of the
population. Per capita income
for a nation is calculated by
dividing the country's national
income by its population.
 ▪Regardless of what one
thinks about
development, it connotes
INDICATORS progress towards an
OF improved quality of life,
DEVELOPMEN
T economic prosperity and
advancement in social,
political, technological
and cultural spheres.
 ▪Indicators of
Development are
INDICATORS criteria used to
OF measure levels of
DEVELOPMEN
T development, such as
GDP, GNP, literacy,
health and so on
 ▪There are two major
categories that are used as
indicators of development:
INDICATORS ▪Economic (material) – which
OF focusses on material aspects
DEVELOPMEN that are easily measurable
T ▪Human/Social – which
emphasises qualitative areas
such as health and education
 ▪Economic/Material Indicators are
quantitative in nature and
include aspects such as:
▪ GDP
▪ GNP
▪ Per Capita Income
Economic ▪ Inflation Rate (yearly increase in
Indicators prices which affect cost of living)
▪ unemployment level
▪ Investment
▪ Fiscal Balance (Earnings –
Spending)
▪ Trade Balance (Export – Imports)
 ▪ Though these are good indicators, they
may not give a realistic view if used
alone. For example, in the Caribbean
during slavery, GNP would have been a
poor indicator of wealth since there was a
high per capita income but those who
laboured were excluded.
▪ Similarly, GDP gives no information on
Economic how a country’s income is spent – for
Indicators example, how much is allocated to
health, education, infrastructure, defence
and so on.
▪ On its own, GDP does not give a true
reflection of the economic inequalities
that exist, nor the spiraling increases in
the cost of living that affect most low
 ▪ Research has shown that countries
with similar GNP and GDP rank
differently on human and social
scales, and for this reason the Human
Development is important.
▪ HDI measures development, not only
Social in economic terms but also in relation

Indicators to other social dimensions of health

and levels of education.
▪ HDI ranks countries based on three
dimensions (economics, health and
education) and rank countries in four
categories: very high, high, medium
and low
 Dimensions Indicators
Health Life Expectancy at Birth

Education 1. Mean Years of Schooling for adults

age 25

2. Expected years of schooling based

on enrolment by all levels of
education from the official age of
entry to 18 years

Economic/Living Conditions Gross National Income per Capita

 ▪ HDI has been improved over the
years to reflect more fairness and
equity. The figures can be broken
down to show differences and
discrepancies in terms of income
groups, sex, ethnicity, and region.
▪ There is an argument that other
HDI factors must be considered such as
levels of poverty, housing, public
transportation, electricity, roads,
bridges and communications.
▪ Cultural and political dimensions may
also be considered, though not easy
to be measured
 ▪Cultural dimension may
include:
▪cultural retention,
▪treatment of marginalized
groups, women and
HDI
children
▪Justice
▪Environmental
consciousness/sustainable
development
 ▪Political Dimension includes:
▪Citizen Safety and Security
▪Crime/Measures
▪Women in the Political
Process/Women in Leadership
HDI ▪Protection of Rights and Freedoms
▪ Press/Media Freedom
▪ Availability of Civil Society/Freedom
of Association
▪ Freedom of Expression (protest,
speech, etc)
 ▪ The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are
eight goals with measurable targets and clear
deadlines for improving the lives of the world's
poorest people. To meet these goals and eradicate
Millennium poverty, leaders of 189 countries signed the

Development historic millennium declaration at the United

Nations Millennium Summit in 2000. At that time,
Goals eight goals that range from providing universal
primary education to avoiding child and maternal
mortality were set with a target achievement date
of 2015.
 ▪ GOAL 1:
ERADICATE EXTREME POVERTY & HUNGER
▪ Target 1.A:
Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than
$1.25 a day
▪ The target of reducing extreme poverty rates by half was met five years ahead of the 2015
deadline.
▪ More than 1 billion people have been lifted out of extreme poverty since 1990.
▪ In 1990, nearly half of the population in the developing regions lived on less than $1.25 a day.
This rate dropped to 14 per cent in 2015.

MDG 1
▪ At the global level more than 800 million people are still living in extreme poverty.
▪ Target 1.B:
Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and
young people
▪ Globally, 300 million workers lived below the $1.25 a day poverty line in 2015.
▪ The global employment-to-population ratio – the proportion of the working-age population that is
employed – has fallen from 62 per cent in 1991 to 60 per cent in 2015, with an especially
significant downturn during the global economic crisis of 2008/2009.
▪ Only four in ten young women and men aged 15-24 are employed in 2015, compared with five in
ten in 1991.
▪ Target 1.C:
Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger
▪ The proportion of undernourished people in the developing regions has fallen by almost half since
1990.
▪ Globally, about 795 million people are estimated to be undernourished.
 ▪ GOAL 2:
ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION
▪ Target 2.A:
Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls
alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary
schooling
▪ Enrolment in primary education in developing regions reached 91
per cent in 2015, up from 83 per cent in 2000.
▪ In 2015, 57 million children of primary school age were out of
MDG 2 school.
▪ Among youth aged 15 to 24, the literacy rate has improved
globally from 83 per cent to 91 per cent between 1990 and 2015,
and the gap between women and men has narrowed.
▪ In the developing regions, children in the poorest households are
four times as likely to be out of school as those in the richest
households.
▪ In countries affected by conflict, the proportion of out-of-school
children increased from 30 per cent in 1999 to 36 per cent in
2012.
 ▪ GOAL 3:
PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER WOMEN
▪ Target 3.A:
Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary
education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of
education no later than 2015
▪ The developing countries as a whole have achieved the target to
eliminate gender disparity in primary, secondary and tertiary
education.

MDG 3 ▪ Globally, about three quarters of working-age men participate in

the labour force, compared to half of working-age women.
▪ Women make up 41 per cent of paid workers outside of
agriculture, an increase from 35 per cent in 1990.
▪ The average proportion of women in parliament has nearly
doubled over the past 20 years.
▪ Women continue to experience significant gaps in terms of
poverty, labour market and wages, as well as participation in
private and public decision-making.
 ▪ GOAL 4:
REDUCE CHILD MORTALITY
▪ Target 4.A:
Reduce by two thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five
mortality rate
▪ Between 1990 and 2015, the global under-five mortality rate has
declined by more than half, dropping from 90 to 43 deaths per 1000 live
births.
▪ Between 1990 and 2015, the number of deaths in children under five
worldwide declined from 12.7 million in 1990 to almost 6 million in 2015.

MDG 4 ▪ Children in rural areas are about 1.7 times more likely to die before their
fifth birthday as those in urban areas.
▪ Children of mothers with secondary or higher education are almost three
times as likely to survive as children of mothers with no education.
▪ While Sub-Saharan Africa has the world’s highest child mortality rate, the
absolute decline in child mortality has been the largest over the past two
decades.
▪ Every day in 2015, 16,000 children under five continue to die, mostly
from preventable causes. Child survival must remain a focus of the new
sustainable development agenda.
 ▪ GOAL 5:
IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH
▪ Target 5.A:
Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the
maternal mortality ratio
▪ Since 1990, the maternal mortality ratio has been cut nearly
in half, and most of the reduction occurred since 2000.
▪ More than 71 per cent of births were assisted by skilled health

MDG 5 personnel globally in 2014, an increase from 59 per cent in

1990.
▪ Globally, there were an estimated 289,000 maternal deaths in
2013.
▪ Target 5.B:
Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive
health
▪ After years of slow progress, only half of pregnant women
receive the recommended amount of antenatal care.
 ▪ GOAL 6:
COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA AND OTHER DISEASES
▪ Target 6.A:
Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
▪ New HIV infections fell by approximately 40 per cent between 2000 and 2013.
▪ Globally, an estimated 35 million people were still living with HIV in 2013.
▪ More than 75 per cent of the new infections in 2013 occurred in 15 countries.
▪ Worldwide, an estimated 0.8 per cent of adults aged 15 to 49 were living with HIV in 2013.
▪ Target 6.B:
Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those who need it
▪ By June 2014, 13.6 million people living with HIV were receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) globally,
an increase from 800,000 in 2003.

MDG 6
▪ In 2013 alone, the number of people receiving ART rose by 1.9 million in the developing regions.
▪ ART averted 7.6 million deaths from AIDS between 1995 and 2013.
▪ Antiretroviral medicines to treat HIV were delivered to 12.1 million people in developing regions in
2014.
▪ Target 6.C:
Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major
diseases
▪ Between 2000 and 2015, the substantial expansion of malaria interventions led to a 58 per cent
decline in malaria mortality rates globally.
▪ Since 2000, over 6.2 million deaths from malaria were averted, primarily in children under five years
of age in Sub-Saharan Africa.
▪ Due to increased funding, more children are sleeping under insecticide-treated bed nets in sub-
Saharan Africa.
▪ Tuberculosis prevention, diagnosis and treatment interventions have saved some 37 million lives
between 2000 and 2013.
 ▪ GOAL 7:
ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
▪ Target 7.A:
Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and
reverse the loss of environmental resources
▪ Forests are a safety net, especially for the poor, but they continue to disappear at an alarming rate.
▪ An increase in afforestation, a slight decrease in deforestation and the natural expansion of forests have
reduced the net loss of forest from an average of 8.3 million hectares annually in the 1990s to an average of
5.2 million hectares annually between 2000 and 2010.
▪ Between 1990 and 2012, global emissions of carbon dioxide increased by over 50 per cent.
▪ Ozone-depleting substances have been virtually eliminated, and the ozone layer is expected to recover by
the middle of this century.
▪ Target 7.B:
Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss

MDG 7
▪ Protected ecosystems covered 15.2 per cent of land and 8.4 per cent of coastal marine areas worldwide by
2014.
▪ Target 7.C:
Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking
water and basic sanitation
▪ The world has met the target of halving the proportion of people without access to improved sources of
water, five years ahead of schedule.
▪ Between 1990 and 2015, 2.6 billion people gained access to improved drinking water sources.
▪ Worldwide 2.1 billion people have gained access to improved sanitation. Despite progress, 2.4 billion are still
using unimproved sanitation facilities, including 946 million people who are still practicing open defecation.
▪ Target 7.D:
Achieve, by 2020, a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers
▪ Between 2000 and 2014, more than 320 million people living in slums gained access to improved water
sources, improved sanitation facilities, or durable or less crowded housing, thereby exceeding the MDG
target.
▪ More than 880 million people are estimated to be living in slums today, compared to 792 million in 2000 and
 ▪ GOAL 8:
DEVELOP A GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP FOR DEVELOPMENT
▪ Target 8.A:
Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading and financial
system
▪ Official development assistance from developed countries increased by 66 per cent in real terms between
2000 and 2014, reaching $135.2 billion.
▪ Target 8.B:
Address the special needs of least developed countries
▪ In 2014, bilateral aid to least developed countries (LDCs) fell 16 per cent in real terms, reaching $25 billion.
▪ 79 per cent of imports from developing countries enter developed countries duty-free.
▪ Target 8.C:
Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and small island developing States
▪ Projections indicate that a 2.5 per cent increase in country programmable aid in 2015, mainly through

MDG 8
disbursements by multilateral agencies, will most benefit least developed and other low-income countries.
▪ Target 8.D:
Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries
▪ In 2013, the debt burden of developing countries was 3.1 per cent, a major improvement over the 2000 figure
of 12.0 per cent.
▪ Target 8.E:
In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable essential drugs in
developing countries
▪ From 2007 to 2014, on average, generic medicines were available in 58 per cent of public health facilities in
low-income and lower-middle-income countries.
▪ Target 8.F:
In cooperation with the private sector, make available benefits of new technologies, especially
information and communications
▪ Globally, the proportion of the population covered by a 2G mobile-cellular network grew from 58 per cent in
2001 to 95 per cent in 2015.
▪ Internet use penetration has grown from just over 6 per cent of the world’s population in 2000 to 43 per cent
 ▪ The Sustainable Development Goals are the
blueprint to achieve a better and more
sustainable future for all. They address the

Sustainable global challenges we face, including those

related to poverty, inequality, climate,
Development environmental degradation, prosperity, and

Goals peace and justice. The Goals interconnect

and in order to leave no one behind, it ís
important that we achieve each Goal and
target by 2030.
 ▪ More than 700 million people, or 10% of the world population,
still live in extreme poverty. Surviving on less than US$1.90 a
day.
▪ Having a job does not guarantee a decent living. In fact, 8 per
cent of employed workers and their families worldwide lived in
extreme poverty in 2018.
▪ Globally, there are 122 women aged 25 to 34 living in extreme
poverty for every 100 men of the same age group.

Goal 1: No ▪ The majority of people living on less than $1.90 a day live in

Poverty
sub-Saharan Africa.
▪ High poverty rates are often found in small, fragile and conflict-
affected countries.
▪ Poverty affects children disproportionately. One out of five
children live in extreme poverty.
▪ As of 2018, 55% of the world’s population have no access to
social protection.
▪ In 2018, only 41% of women giving birth received maternity
cash benefits.
 ▪ 1.1 By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently
measured as people living on less than $1.25 a day
▪ 1.2 By 2030, reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and
children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national
definitions
▪ 1.3 Implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures
for all, including floors, and by 2030 achieve substantial coverage of the poor
and the vulnerable
▪ 1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the
vulnerable, have equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic
services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property,

Goal 1: No inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology and financial

services, including microfinance

Poverty ▪ 1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations
and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events
and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters
▪ 1.A Ensure significant mobilization of resources from a variety of sources,
including through enhanced development cooperation, in order to provide
adequate and predictable means for developing countries, in particular least
developed countries, to implement programmes and policies to end poverty in
all its dimensions
▪ 1.B Create sound policy frameworks at the national, regional and international
levels, based on pro-poor and gender-sensitive development strategies, to
support accelerated investment in poverty eradication actions
 ▪ Hunger
▪ An estimated 821 million people were undernourished in 2017.
▪ The majority of the world’s hungry people live in developing countries, where 12.9 per cent of
the population is undernourished.
▪ Sub-Saharan Africa remains the region with the highest prevalence of hunger, with the rate
increasing from 20.7 per cent in 2014 to 23.2 per cent in 2017.
▪ In sub-Saharan Africa, the number of undernourished people increased from 195 million in 2014
to 237 million in 2017.
▪ Poor nutrition causes nearly half (45 per cent) of deaths in children under five – 3.1 million
children each year.
▪ 149 million children under 5 years of age—22 per cent of the global under-5 population—were

Goal 2: Zero
still chronically undernourished in 2018.
▪ Food security

Hunger ▪ Agriculture is the single largest employer in the world, providing livelihoods for 40 per cent of
today’s global population. It is the largest source of income and jobs for poor rural households.
▪ 500 million small farms worldwide, most still rainfed, provide up to 80 per cent of food
consumed in a large part of the developing world. Investing in smallholder women and men is
an important way to increase food security and nutrition for the poorest, as well as food
production for local and global markets.
▪ Since the 1900s, some 75 per cent of crop diversity has been lost from farmers’ fields. Better
use of agricultural biodiversity can contribute to more nutritious diets, enhanced livelihoods for
farming communities and more resilient and sustainable farming systems.
▪ If women farmers had the same access to resources as men, the number of hungry in the world
could be reduced by up to 150 million.
▪ 840 million people have no access to electricity worldwide – most of whom live in rural areas of
the developing world. Energy poverty in many regions is a fundamental barrier to reducing
hunger and ensuring that the world can produce enough food to meet future demand.
 ▪ 2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in
vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round.
▪ 2.2 By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally
agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the
nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons.
▪ 2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in
particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including
through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge,
financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment.
▪ 2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural
practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that
strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and

Goal 2: Zero
other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality.
▪ 2.5 By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and
domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and

Hunger diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote
access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic
resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed.
▪ 2.A Increase investment, including through enhanced international cooperation, in rural
infrastructure, agricultural research and extension services, technology development and plant
and livestock gene banks in order to enhance agricultural productive capacity in developing
countries, in particular least developed countries.
▪ 2.B Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets,
including through the parallel elimination of all forms of agricultural export subsidies and all
export measures with equivalent effect, in accordance with the mandate of the Doha
Development Round.
▪ 2.C Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and their
derivatives and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food reserves, in
order to help limit extreme food price volatility.
 ▪ Targets
▪ By 2030, reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births
▪ By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all countries aiming to
reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live births and under-5 mortality to at least as low
as 25 per 1,000 live births
▪ By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and combat
hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases
▪ By 2030, reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through prevention and
treatment and promote mental health and well-being
▪ Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug abuse and harmful use
of alcohol
▪ By 2020, halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents 3.7

Goal 3: Good ▪ By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for family
planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national strategies and
programmes

Health and ▪ Achieve universal health coverage, including financial risk protection, access to quality essential health-care
services and access to safe, effective, quality and affordable essential medicines and vaccines for all

Well Being
▪ By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water
and soil pollution and contamination
▪ Strengthen the implementation of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control
in all countries, as appropriate
▪ Support the research and development of vaccines and medicines for the communicable and
noncommunicable diseases that primarily affect developing countries, provide access to affordable essential
medicines and vaccines, in accordance with the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health,
which affirms the right of developing countries to use to the full the provisions in the Agreement on Trade
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights regarding flexibilities to protect public health, and, in
particular, provide access to medicines for all
▪ Substantially increase health financing and the recruitment, development, training and retention of the health
workforce in developing countries, especially in least developed countries and small island developing States
▪ Strengthen the capacity of all countries, in particular developing countries, for early warning, risk reduction
and management of national and global health risks
▪
 Websites to
check for ▪ http://www.vision2030.gov.jm/

Statistics and
▪ https://sdgs.un.org/goals

Information
 ▪ The concepts Industrialisation, Urbanisation and
Relationship Migration are of great interest to Sociologists.

Between They are intertwined in their relationship to

development
Population & ▪ Specific to the Caribbean are other concepts such
Development as Bureaucratisation, Gender and Tourism
 ▪ Sir Arthur Lewis first advocated industrialization of
the British West Indies. In the immediate post-
Second World War period, Lewis noted that the
Caribbean economies were dualistic in nature. At
that time, there was a large traditional sector,
based primarily on agriculture, and a small
modern sector, based on manufacturing. There
Industrialisati was a surplus of labour in the agricultural sector,

on which could be ‘transferred’ to the modern sector.

However, this process of industrialization needed
heavy capital outlay and technical know-how.
Foreign capitalists were the only ones to provide
these two elements and they had to be ‘enticed’
to invest in the Caribbean. Some incentives he
suggested included subsidies and tax holidays.
 ▪ Lewis argued that the injection of foreign capital
would increase national income. He further
suggested that the local people could build up
savings and learn the tricks of the trade from
foreigners. Then local enterprises could eventually
be established. In sum, he prescribed

Industrialisati industrialization as a basis for economic growth,

which would become known as ‘industrialization
on by invitation.’
▪ Programmes were launched in Barbados, Jamaica,
Puerto Rico and Trinidad and Tobago. Physical
resources such as bauxite and petroleum were
fully utilized.
 ▪ The Caribbean has become a booming industrial
centre. This is evidenced by the number of foreign
investors who have established multi-million dollar
businesses in the region. Manufactured goods are
exported within the region and also externally to
many international markets. Many governments
have catered to investors by granting soft loans
Industrialisati and tax holidays, by the development of industrial

on parks and by other similar measures.

▪ However, although local entrepreneurs, in
conjunction with foreign partners, own some of
these businesses, there are some in which local
business people are sole owners. The government
may sometimes be a shareholder in these
undertakings
 ▪ Advantages
▪ Industrialisation has increased employment opportunities
▪ Goods are mass produced, bringing about cheaper prices
▪ Countries are able to trade freely with each other, removing
boundaries that once existed
▪ Increased technology, better transport and improved
infrastructure have improved the quality of life of citizens
▪ Stimulation of economies.

Industrialisati ▪ Disadvantages
on ▪ The increased employment opportunities sometimes bring with
them poor working conditions, low wages and the exploitation
of women and children
▪ Continual loss of culture as people continue to move from
villages in preference of urban lifestyles
▪ Urbanisation has resulted in overcrowded cities, human
pollution, traffic jams and more accidents
▪ Foreign investors benefit more, in that they get tax exemptions
and profits are repatriated.
 ▪ Urban economic activity is contributing an increasing
share to the GDP of all Caribbean countries, and the
productivity of urban sectors will exert an inordinate
amount of influence on economic growth. Although
this productivity is beneficial, there still remain
problems associated with ‘over-urbanization.’
▪ Urbanization may be defined both in demographic and
sociological terms. Demographically, urbanization
refers to the shift in a country’s population from rural
Urbanisation to urban areas. Sociologically, urbanization alludes to
a system of values, attitudes and behaviours known
as ‘urban culture.’
▪ Demarcating rural areas from urban ones is not an
easy task, and is relative, depending upon the
historical, geopolitical and socio-economic setting in
which they occur. This may be illustrated by the fact
that there is no given population size or density which
turns a village into a town or a town into a city.
 ▪ Natural Increase
▪ This may be calculated by finding the difference
between the fertility/birth and mortality/death rates.
There were substantial reductions in the death rate
with the advent of the Germ theory of disease, the

Causes of introduction of immunization, and the whole

revolution in medical care, including technological
Unplanned innovations. Initial fertility declines in the Caribbean
were experienced during the late 1950s and early
Urbanization in 1960s and were due to the fact that more women

the Caribbean sought higher education and entered into professional

careers. Fertility rates are higher in the rural areas in
the Caribbean region. A partial explanation is that
urban women are generally more formally educated
than rural women, and many urban women are
actively engaged in work activities outside the home.
 ▪ Migration
▪ A large proportion of the migrants are young adults in
search of better economic opportunities in urban areas.
These individuals, because of their age, have higher
fertility rates than the rest of the urban population. This
would have long-term repercussions as it represents a

Causes of further increase in the urban population.

Unplanned ▪ Socio-economic Factors

Urbanization in ▪ Unplanned urbanization may also be due to:
the Caribbean ▪ employment and income;
▪ education;
▪ declining importance of the agricultural sector; and
▪ other factors such as social services and the status and
prestige attached to urban living.
 ▪ Requirements of the urban labour market:
Although there is some shortage in the
professional labour supply because of the brain
drain effect, the supply of labour in urban centres
usually outstrips demand. This leads to high rates
Consequences of unemployment, as rural migrants add to the

of excess supply, or as they occupy positions that

would previously have been filled by original
Urbanisation residents. The full ramifications of unemployment
are not easy to decipher, but the consequences
include poverty, crime and similar negative
consequences.
 ▪ Availability of social services:
▪ Housing: Since demand is in excess of supply, the
cost of accommodation tends to be very high. As a

Consequences result, there is a prevalence of squatter

settlements, urban settlements, shantytowns and
of overcrowding.

Urbanisation ▪ Lack of basic services: Urban dwellers suffer from

a lack of access to a clean and regular water
supply and proper sanitation.
 ▪ Social pathology:
▪ Crime and violence: Incidents of crime and
violence include those that have been precipitated
by high unemployment rates. Victimless crimes
such as vandalism, pornography and prostitution
have also been on the rise.

Consequences ▪ Race relations: Established communities of

of minority groups, along with new arrivals belonging

to the same group, frequently form distinct
Urbanisation communities. Hence, there is not necessarily the
existence of the traditional ‘melting pot’ situation,
as there is a degree of segregation based on race
and ethnicity. Thus, there is the potential for
tension and violence among various groups in
recently settled urban communities.
 ▪ Migration is defined as the movement of people
across a specified boundary (national or
international) to establish a new permanent place
of residence. The UN defines permanent as a
change of residence that lasts more than one
year; thus daily commuters cannot be considered
as migrants. However, some use the term
Migration migration to include temporary/seasonal
movement, e.g. university students who spend
semesters away from home or harvesters who
may go to another country during crop-reaping
period. Migration can also be short term when
people move for vacation purposes or short
contractual employment.
 ▪ Migration can be broken down into:
▪ Emigration
▪ Immigration
▪ External Migration
▪ Internal Migration
Migration ▪ All forms of movement have an impact on
populations and contribute to population change
and population growth. Movement can either
benefit or hinder the development of a country.
 ▪ The history of the Caribbean is characterized by
migration:
▪ Amerindians moved from South America up through
the Caribbean chain of islands
▪ Colonialism: Europeans crossed the Atlantic and
Migration settled in the Caribbean
▪ Slavery: Africans brought to work on tobacco, cotton
and sugar plantations
▪ Indentureship: East Indian labourers worked on
sugar plantations after the abolition of slavery
 ▪ In contemporary times there are other social and political
conditions that influence migration in the Caribbean:
▪ CARICOM & CSME – barriers have been moved to allow the free
movement of skilled and semi-skilled CARICOM citizens
throughout CARICOM
▪ Proximity to the USA – increased controls on entry to the USA
have thwarted illegal movement of citizens of Caribbean
countries. US citizens (who also have Caribbean citizenship) can
apply for relatives to live in the USA. The political situation in
Cuba, the economic problems in Haiti, the relationship with

Migration Puerto Rico and the closeness to The Bahamas, has resulted in
continued emigration from these countries
▪ Colonial Links: many countries gained independence from their
colonisers but for the former British colonies, the British Monarch
remains their Head of State and in the French and Dutch
countries they are still dependencies and so movement is
common.
▪ Globalisation – people are free to choose to migrate as long as
they fulfil the criteria outlined by the receiving country. People
may choose to study abroad which may also contribute to the
brain drain plaguing the region
 ▪ Migration can be forced or voluntary. Forced migration
may be because of natural disasters, economic reasons,
religious or social imposition. Voluntary migration occurs
through choice because people are looking for improved
quality of life or personal freedom. There are however
restrictions to free movement. These may include:
▪ Passport and/or visa

Migration ▪ Police certificate of good character

▪ Academic or professional qualifications needed in host
country
▪ Experience or skill in the intended field of employment
▪ Evidence of adequate finances to settle comfortably in new
environment
▪ Medical examination or medical insurance
 ▪ External Migration can benefit (by boosting the
number of skilled workers) or retard (by increasing
competition for scarce resources) the receiving
country. A large influx of migrants is not always
encouraged and governments may place restrictions
on immigration to protect their country to include
further tightening restrictions when the economy is
slow or having policies that favour one group over

Migration
another.
▪ Internal Migration is most significant in terms of rural-
to-urban movement. In developing countries, this
creates problems in urban areas such as congestion,
homelessness, and competition for scarce resources.
It also has a negative effect on rural areas.
Agricultural lands can be abandoned and
infrastructure in rural areas may not be prioritized
compared to in the city.
 ▪ The Platform for Action adopted at the Fourth World Conference for
Women required all signatories, which included many Caribbean
governments, to incorporate a gender perspective into the design,
implementation and monitoring of all policies and programmes. One
route to achieving this was through the establishment of national
machineries specifically aimed at the promotion and advancement of
women.
▪ National machineries for women exist in Barbados, Belize, Guyana,
Jamaica, St Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines,
Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago. However, questions have been

GENDER
raised about the regional governments’ commitment to concerns of
gender equity. Many critics have said that these machineries have
simply been the political leadership’s reaction to demands from the
international community.
▪ In the Caribbean, state agencies, such as ministries of gender or
women’s affairs, are often affected by:
▪ inadequate budgetary allocations;
▪ a lack of staff;
▪ inadequately trained staff;
▪ a lack of cooperation from sectoral ministries;
▪ unclear policies; and
 ▪ According to Peggy Antrobus (1988), the following are two examples of
issues for gender in Caribbean development:
▪ Industry
▪ Unfair compensation
▪ Exploitation of women’s sexuality
▪ Existence of the ‘glass ceiling’.

▪ Agriculture and Rural Development

▪ The ‘invisibility’ of women’s work in households and subsistence agriculture
▪ Sexual division of labour, and women’s multiple roles, and the implications of

Gender
these for the design and implementation of agricultural extension programmes.

▪ The Caribbean has made notable progressive steps towards eliminating

many forms of discrimination against women. To a large extent, women
have equal access to credit, education and health. Labour force
participation has increased, with more women holding senior
management and parliamentary positions. Laws and other legislation,
such as Domestic Violence Acts, have been enacted to protect women’s
rights.
▪ However, there still is a need to overcome ‘symbolic reassurances,’ by
ensuring that gender action plans contain clear performance targets,
accompanied by monetary provisions and developed in collaboration with
the agencies and stakeholders that are required to implement these
plans.
 ▪ Agriculture – for a number of years, the agricultural
sector in the region has been declining, both in terms
of the number of persons employed in the sector and
its contribution to GDP. Many Caribbean islands have
experienced rising food prices as a primary driver for
inflation because of the high food import bills. In

Other Trinidad and Tobago, for example, the food import bill
was over TT$4 billion for 2011. Governments must now
Challenges in shift focus on enhancing food security for the region in
order for continued development to take place.
the Caribbean
▪ Crime – in recent times, islands such as Trinidad and
Tobago, Jamaica and Guyana have been witnessing a
crime epidemic. There has been a worrying upsurge in
gang membership and gang-related crimes. The
impact of crime can be felt in all spheres – social,
economic and political.
 ▪ Economic Vulnerability – the economies in the region are tied
to those of developed countries, which make our islands more
susceptible to external shocks. One way in which the economies
of the region are linked to those of the North is through trade
agreements. Hence, the World Trade Organization’s recent
change in the trading agreement with respect to bananas has
affected countries such as Saint Lucia, St Vincent and Dominica.

Other ▪ Economic Diversification – Caribbean countries have

historically tended to be focused on one or two main sectors for
Challenges in income, employment and foreign exchange. For example,

the Caribbean
Trinidad and Tobago is known for its oil, Jamaica for its tourism
and the smaller islands for agricultural production such as
bananas and cocoa. This concern is even more pronounced,
given the issue above.

▪ Transportation – the problems associated with regional air and

sea transportation continue to impact on the cost of living of
Caribbean nationals. There are increased calls for the
introduction of an inter-island ferry service as a less costly means
 1. Identify any THREE development issues facing the
Caribbean region (3 marks)
2. State TWO effects of increased urbanisation on
the Caribbean (2 marks)
3. State THREE types of reform, besides health and
urbanisation, which are necessary for the further

Home Work development of the Caribbean (3 marks)

4. Briefly describe the THREE most significant
challenges affecting your country’s development.
Why do you consider these to be the most
significant? (6 marks)
5. Discuss one policy measure that could be
implemented to alleviate the challenges caused by
each of the THREE issues you have identified (6