WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

1. INTRODUCTION
Nuisance of Waste Water Health & Environmental Concerns Industrial Wastewater Typical Composition of Untreated Domestic Wastewater Characteristics of Wastewater
9.00 9.30 a.m

2. COLIFORMS, BOD, COD & TKN

Coliforms Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

9.30 10.15 a.m

Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) BOD, CBOD & NBOD BOD Rate Equation BOD Calculations Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen

3. PRIMARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Preliminary Operation Physical Treatment System Screening Grit Removal

10.30 11.15 a.m

Flow Equalization Mixing Sedimentation & Retention Time

4.

SECONDARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Conventional Wastewater Treatment Flow Diagram Purpose of Secondary Treatment Biological Treatment Processes
Activated-Sludge Processes Trickling Filters Stabilization Ponds

11.15 12.15 p.m

5. CHEMICAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Chemical Unit Processes Chemical Precipitation Coagulants Phosphate Removal Adsorption Disinfection with Chlorine Compounds

12.15 1.00 p.m

6.

ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Additional Treatment for Water Reuse Various Advanced Treatment Methods Suspended Solids Removal by Filtration Phosphate Removal Removal of Toxic Compounds

2.00 2.45 p.m

7. SLUDGE TREATMENT & DISPOSAL

Sludge Sources & Characteristic Sludge Treatment Processes
Thickening Stabilization Conditioning Dewatering Reduction

2.45 3.30 p.m

Sludge Disposal

6.

INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Inorganics in Industrial Wastes Pretreatment
Equalization

3.45 4.45 p.m

Neutralization Grease and Oil Removal Toxic Substances

Metering

Off-line Equalizer Grit Removal

Optional

C12 mixer

Screen & Communication

Primary Settling

Bio. Process

Sec. Settling

Effluent Filtration
C12 Contact Chamber

Recycle
Backwash Water Storage

Flotation Thickening To Sludge Processing Facilities

Effluent

WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT FLOW DIAGRAM SHOWING THE LOCATION OF PHYSICAL UNIT OPERATIONS
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Nuisance of Waste Water Health & Environmental Concerns

Industrial Wastewater
Typical Composition of Untreated Domestic Wastewater Characteristics of Wastewater

Nuisance of Wastewater
It is desirable and becoming necessary to remove immediately wastewater from its sources of generation, followed by treatment and disposal because:
Untreated wastewater usually contains many pathogenic or disease-causing micro-organisms that dwell in the human intestinal tract of that may be present in certain industrial waste. Also, nutrients which can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants are found in wastewater. Wastewater may contain toxic compounds.

Wastewater collected from municipalities and communities must ultimately be returned to receiving waters or to the land.
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 Nuisance and health conditions have brought about an increasing demand for more effective means of wastewater management.
The impracticability of procuring sufficient areas for the disposal of untreated wastewater on land, particularly for larger cities, led to the adoption of more intensive methods of treatment.

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 Primary treatment is essentially dealing with physical operations in which screening and sedimentation are used to remove the floating and settleable solids found in wastewater. Secondary treatment uses biological and chemical processes to remove most of the organic matter. Advanced treatment uses additional combinations of unit operations and processes to remove other constituents such as nitrogen and phosphates. Land treatment processes or the natural systems combine physical, chemical and biological treatment mechanisms.
These systems produce water with quality similar to or better than that from advanced wastewater treatment.

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Health and Environmental Concerns

Odours are one of the most serious environmental concerns to the public. The control of odours, particularly, the control of hydrogen sulphide generation is of great concern in collection systems and at treatment plants
The sulphide produced in sewers is released as hydrogen sulphide The release of excess hydrogen sulphide will cause accelerated corrosion of concrete sewers and headwork structures and to the release of odours.
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 Special efforts should be made to control and contain the development of odours in the design, installation and the proper sitting of wastewater collection and treatment facilities.

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INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATERS
Industrial wastewaters can be classified as:
Domestic wastewaters Process wastewaters, and Cooling wastewaters

Plant workers, shower facilities and cafeterias produce domestic wastewaters. Process wastewaters are produced by product washing, spills and leaks.
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 Various cooling processes produce cooling wastewaters

They can be once-pass systems or multiple-recycle cooling systems.

In the once-pass cooling systems, large volumes of cooling waters are used and returned to the environment. In the multiple-recycle cooling system, using cooling towers, wastewaters are the result of blow-down which is required to prevent excess buildup of salts. Domestic wastewaters pose the potential for pathogenic micro-organisms
Normal sanitary-sewage system is normally used to handle the domestic wastewaters to prevent the spread of pathogenic micro-organisms.
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 There is normally no potential hazard of pathogenic micro-organisms in the process wastewaters

However, they are potential hazard to the environment through chemical reactions, directly or indirectly Some process waste are toxic and pose a direct health hazard to biological life in the environment Other process wastes are readily bio-degraded and create an immediate oxygen demand.

Cooling wastewaters are the least hazardous

However, process wastewaters may be present in the cooling wastewaters resulting from the leaks in the cooling systems.

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Physical Characteristics
Wastewater characteristics can be classified as
Physical Chemical, and Biological

The physical properties are

Solids Odour Colour Temperature and Density
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 The most important physical characteristics of wastewater is its total solids content. The total solids content is composed of the following items:
Floating matter Settleable matter Colloidal matter, and Matter in solution

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Odour
Odours in wastewater are nuisance to the environment
Offensive odours can cause poor appetite for food, impaired respiration, nausea and vomiting Thus, odours in wastewater have been considered as the first concern of the public in the implementation of wastewater facilities.

Generally, odour in fresh wastewater is less objectionable than the odour of wastewater that has undergone anaerobic (devoid of oxygen) decompositon.
Hydrogen sulphide is produced by anaerobic micro-organisms that reduce sulphate to sulphide Hydrogen sulphide is responsible for the most characteristic odour of stale or septic wastewater.
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 In domestic wastewater, odours are due to gases produced by the decomposition of organic matter
Or by substances added to the wastewater.

In industrial wastewaters, odours are caused by the presence of odorous compounds or compounds that generate odours during the wastewater treatment process.
The control of odours is a major consideration in the design and operation of wastewater facilities covering collection, treatment and disposal.

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Colour
Condition relating the age of the wastewater is qualitatively determined by the colour and odour of the wastewater.
Fresh wastewater is usually a light brownish-grey colour The colour changes sequentially from grey to dark grey and finally to black as the travel time to wastewater in the collection system increases and more anaerobic conditions develops.

Black wastewater is often described as septic

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Temperature
Wastewater temperature tends to be higher than the temperature of the water supply
Due to the addition of warm water from households and industrial activities.

It is important to consider the temperatuare of wastewater because it affects:

Chemical reaction and reaction rates Aquatic life, and The suitability of the water for beneficial uses.

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 Also, oxygen is less soluble in warm water than in cold water.

Abnormally high temperatures can cause the undesirable growth of wastewater fungus and water plants. For bacterial activity, the optimum temperatures are from about 25 to 35C.

For the most part, temperature is not a critical issue below 37C if wastewaters are to receive biological treatment.
The effects of temperature on the performance of biological treatment processes are discussed later in biological treatment topic

An increase in wastewater temperature causes an increase in the rate of biochemical reactions.

This is also accompanied by the decrease in the quantity of oxygen present in surface waters.

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 This combined effect results in serious depletion in dissolved oxygen concentration in the summer months.

A sudden change in temperature can cause a high rate of mortality of aquatic life. Oxygen is a critical environmental resource in receiving streams and lakes.
Aquatic life requires reasonable dissolved-oxygen (DO) levels The minimum stream DO levels is set by EPA at 5mg/L during summer operations.

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Density
Density or specific gravity of wastewater is an important parameter because
Of the tendency of density currents formation in sedimentation tanks and in other treatment units.

The density of domestic wastewater is essentially the same as that of water at the same temperatures, provided that is does not contain significant amounts of industrial waste.

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Turbidity
Insoluble particulates impede the passage of light through water by
Scattering and absorbing the rays.

This interference of light passage is referred to as turbidity. The standard is a suspension of silica of specified particle size selected so that
A 1.0 mg/L suspension measures as 1.0 NTU.

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Chemical Characteristics
The chemical characteristics of wastewater are classified into
Organic matters or organics Inorganic matters or inorganics Gases

Organic compounds are composition of:

Carbon Hydrogen and Oxygen Together with nitrogen in some cases
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 The organic composition of industrial wastes varies widely

Because different raw materials are used by each specific industry.

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Volaltile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

VOCs are organic compounds that have
A boiling point equal to or less than 100C, and/or A vapour pressure greater than 1 mm Hg at 25C.

The release of VOCs in sewers and at treatment plants is of great concern because
They pose a significant public health risk They contribute to a general increase in reactive hydrocarbons in the atmosphere, leading to the formation of photochemical oxidants.

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Agricultural Pesticides
Pesticides, herbicides and other agricultural chemicals are trace organic compounds
They are toxic to most life forms They can be significant contaminants of surface waters.

These chemicals are mainly from surface runoff from agricultural and park lands
They are not common constituents of domestic wastewater.

Concentration of agricultural chemicals in wastewater can cause

Fish kills Contamination of the flesh of fish Impairment of water supplies.
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Priority Pollutants
Priority pollutants are both organic and inorganic
They are identified by the Environment Protection Agency

They are selected on the basis of their known or suspected

Carcinogenicity (carcinogen means cancer-producing substance) Multagenicity (mutation, genetic change which when transmitted to offspring gives rise to heritable variation) Teratogenity, or (Teratogeny, production of monstrosities) High acute toxicity

Many of the organic priority pollutants are volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
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 Typical examples of priority pollutants are:

Non-metals
Arsenic, As Selenium, Se

Metals
Barium, Ba Cadmium, Cd Chromium, Cr Lead, Pb Nercury, Hg Silver, Ag

Organic Compounds
Benzene, C6H6 Ethylbenze, C6H5C2H5 Toluence, C5HC5H3
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 Halogenated Compounds
Chlorobenzene, C6H5C1 Chloroethene, CH2CHC1 Dichloromethane, CH2C12 Tetrachloroethane, CC12CC12

Pesticides, Herbicides, Insecticides

They are listed by trade names. They are also halogenated compounds Examples: Endrin (C12H8OC16) Lindane (C6H6C16) etc.

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Inorganics
The natural water and wastewater contain several inorganic matters
The inorganic components of wastewater and natural waters have to be considered in establishing and controlling water quality.

Some of the rocks and minerals are dissolved in water when they come in contact with the natural water. Concentration of inorganic constituents are increased by the natural process.
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 Wastewaters are seldom treated for removal of the inorganic constituents that are added in the use cycle.
It is important to examine the nature of some of the constituents in terms of:
pH value Chlorides Alkalinity and Nitrogen concentration.

36

Chlorides Concentration
The chloride concentration is an important parameter for the determination of water quality. Chlorides are found in natural water
They result from the leaching of chloride-containing rocks and soils From salt water intrusion

Other sources of chlorides are

Agricultural, industrial and domestic wastewaters Human excreta contain about 6g of chlorides per person per day.
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Alkalinity
Wastewater is normally alkaline
The alkalinity in wastewater is due to the presence of
Hydroxides Carbonates, and Bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium or ammonia Other compounds such as silicates, phosphate

The concentration of alkalinity in wastewater is important in

Chemical treatment Biological nutrient removal etc.
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Nitrogen
Nitrogen and phosphorus are known as nutrients or biostimulants
They are essential to the growth of protista and plants.

Total nitrogen is comprised of

Organic nitrogen, ammonia, nitrite and nitrate.

Ammonia nitrogen exists in aqueous solution as either

The ammonium ion or ammonia, depending on the pH of the solution: NH3 + H2O < > NH4+ + OH
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 At pH above 7, the equilibrium is displaced to the left At pH below 7, the ammonium ion is predominant

Nitrite nitrogen is relatively unstable and is easily oxidised to the nitrate form. Nitrites present in wastewater effluents are oxidised by chlorine
Thus it increases the chlorine dosage requirements and the cost of disinfection. The most highly oxidised form of nitrogen found in wastewaters is the nitrate nitrogen.

The most highly oxidised form of nitrogen found in wastewaters is the nitrate nitrogen.
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Phosphorus
The orthophosphate, polyphosphate and organic phosphate are the usual forms of phosphorus found in aqueous solutions. The orthophosphates are
PO4, HPO4, H2PO4, H3PO4

They are available for biological metabolism without further breakdown

The polyphosphates are

Molecules with two or more phosphorus atoms, oxygen atoms, and in some cases, hydrogen atoms combined in a complex molecule.

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SULPHUR
Sulphate ions are present in most water supplies and wastewater. Under anaerobic conditions, sulphate is reduced biologically to sulphide
The sulphide can then combine with hydrogen to form hydrogen sulphide, H2S.

The generalised reaction are:

Organic matter + SO4 S + H2O + CO2
bacteria

S + 2H+ H2S.
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 H2S will accumulate at the crown of the pipe

The accumulated H2S in turn can be oxidised to sulphuric acid Sulphuric acid is corrosive to sewer pipes.

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Toxic Inorganic Compounds

Many of the toxic inorganic compounds are classified as priority pollutants.
The toxic inorganic compounds are
Copper Lead Silver Chromium Arsenic acid Boron

They are toxic in varying degrees to micro-organisms and must be considered in the design of a biological treatment plant.
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 The micro-organisms may be killed and the biological treatment ceased by the introduction of these ions in treatment plant. In sludge digesters, copper is toxic at a concentration of 100 mg/L. Chromium and nickel are toxic at concentrations of 500 mg/L etc.

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Gases
The following gases are found in untreated wastewater:
Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon dioxide ) ) ) found in all waters exposed to air

Ammonia ) Hydrogen Sulphide, and ) Methane )

Produced by decompositon of the organic matter in wastewaters.

Chlorine, Ozone and the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are not present in untreated wastewater.
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Dissolved Oxygen
The respiration of aerobic micro-organisms requires dissolved oxygen. Oxygen is only slightly dissolved in water.

The solubility of gas depends on

The partial pressure of the gas in the atmosphere The temperature, and The purity of the water.

It is desirable to have dissolved oxygen in wastewater because

It prevents the formation of noxious odour.
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Methane
Mathane gas is the main by-product of the anaerobic decomposition of the organic matter in wastewater.
It is colourless and odourless It is combustible hyddrocarbon and it has high fuel value.

Occasionally, mathane is produced because of anaerobic decay in accumulated bottom deposits.

Since even small amounts of oxygen is toxic to the organisms responsible for methane production, mehtane gas will not be found in large quantities in untreated wastewater.

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 Since methane is highly combustible, the explosion hazard is high

It is important that manholes and sewer junctions or chambers where methane gas may be present (or collected) should be ventilated with a portable blower during and before the workers are working in them.

Safety measures should be taken and

Notices should be posted about the plant warning of explosion hazards in treatment plant where methane is produced.

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Hydrogen Sulphide
Hydrogen sulphide is produced by
The anaerobic decomposition of organic matter containing sulphur, or The reduction of mineral sulphites and sulphates.

Hydrogen sulphide is
Colourless and Inflammable It has a characteristic odour of rotten eggs.

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 Hydrogen sulphide will combine with iron present in waste-water to form ferrous sulphide (FeS).
Resulting in the blackening of wastewater and sludge.

Other metallic sulphides are also produced.

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Micro-organisms
The micro-organisms found in surface water and wastewater are classified as
Eucaryotes Eubacteria, and Archaebacteria

The eucaryotes group includes

Algae Fungi Protozoa Mosses Ferns, etc.
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 Eubacteria group includes most bacteria.

Archaebacteria group includes methanogens, halophiles and thermacidophiles.

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2.0 COLIFORMS, BOD, COD AND TKN

Coliforms Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) BOD5, CBOD & NBOD BOD Rate Equation BOD Calculations Total kjeldahl Nitrogen (TkN)

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Coliforms
The intestinal tract of man contains countless rodshaped bacteria known as coliform organisms.
Each person discharges from 100 to 400 billion coliform organisms per day, in addition to other kinds of bacteria Thus, the presence of coliform organisms is taken as an indication that pathogenic organisms may be present, and The absence of coliform organisms is taken as an indication that the water is free from disease-producing organisms

Because the numbers of pathogenic organisms present in wastes and polluted water are few and difficult to isolate and identify,
The coliform organisms, which is more numerous and more easily tested for, is commonly used as an indicator organism.
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Th OD
The amount of oxygen required to oxidize a substance to carbon dioxide and water may be calculated by stoichiometryif the chemical compositon of the substance is known.
This amount of oxygen is known as the Theoretical Oxygen Demand (Th OD)

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Chemical Oxygen Demand

In contrast to the Th OD, the Chemical Oxygen Demand, COD, is a measured quantity that does not depend on knowledge of the chemical compositon of the substance in the water.
In the COD test, a strong chemical oxidizing agent (chromic acid) is mixed with a water sample and then boiled. The difference between the amount of oxidizing agent at the beginning of the test and that reamining at the end of the test is used to calculate the COD.

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Biochemical Oxygen Demand

If the oxidation of an organic compound is carried out by microorganisms using the organic matter as a food source, the oxygen consumed is known as Biochemical Oxygen Demand, or BOD.
The actual BOD is less than the Th OD due to the incorporation of some of the carbon into new bacterial cells.

The test is a bioassay that utilizes microorganisms in conditions similar to those in natural water to
Measure indirectly the amount of biodegradable organic matter present.

Bioassay means to measure by biological means.

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BOD Test
A water sample is inoculated with bacteria that consume the biodegradable organic matter to obtain energy for their life processes.
Because the organisms also utilize oxygen in the process of consuming the waste, the process is called aerobic decompositon. This oxygen consumption is easily measured. The greater the amount of organic matter present, the greater the amount of oxygen utilized.

The BOD test is an indirect measurement of organic matter because

We actually measure only the change in dissolved oxygen concentration caused by the microorganisms as they degrade the organic matter.
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 Although not all organic matter is biodegradable and the actual test procedures lack precision,
The BOD test is still the most widely used method of measuring organic matter because of The direct conceptual relationship between BOD and oxygen depletion in receiving waters.

Only under rare circumstance will the Th OD, COD, and BOD be equal.

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BOD5
The five-day BOD5 was chosen as the standard value for most purpose because
The test was devised by sanitary engineers in England, where rivers have travel times to the sea of less than five days, so there was no need to consider oxygen demand at longer times.

Since there is no other time which is any more rational than five-days, this value has become firmly established.

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CBOD and NBOD

Not only the carbon in organic matter is oxidized
Many other organic compounds, such as proteins, also contain nitrogen that can be oxidized with the consumption of molecular oxygen.

The two processes must be considered separately

Because the mechanisms and rates of nitrogen oxidation are distinctly different from those of carbon oxidation.

Oxygen consumption due to oxidation of carbon is called carbonaceous BOD (CBOD)

And oxygen consumption due to nitrogen oxidation is called nitrogenous BOD (NBOD)
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Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN)

TKN is a measure of the total organic and ammonia nitrogen in the wastewater.
J. Kjeldahl (Pronounced kell dall) developed the test in 1883.

It gives a measure of the availability of nitrogen for building cell,

As well as the potential nitrogen oxygen demand that will have to be satisfied

In this method, the aqueous sample is first boiled to drive off the ammonia, and then
It is digested During the digestion, organic nitrogen is converted to ammonia.
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Example
Given: The BOD tests for the raw wastewater were set up by pipetting 5.0 ml into each 300 ml bottle.
For one pair of bottles, the test results were: The initial dissolved oxygen (DO) = 8 mg/L The final DO = 3.6 mg/L (after 5 days of incubation at 20C) Determine the BOD5.

Solution
Since the sample is unseeded, the relationship equation:

BOD = D1-D2
P 64

 Where

D1 D2 P

= 8mg/L = 3.6 mg/L = Decimal fraction of wastewater sample used = 5/300 mg/L

BOD5 =

8-3.6 5/300

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3.0 PRIMARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Preliminary Operation Screening Grit Removal Flow Equalizer Sedimentation & Retention Time Flotation

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Screening
Wastewater treatment is directed towards removal of pollutants (contaminants) with least effort. Suspended solids are removed by either
Physical separation or Chemical separation

Screening is the first physical unit operation encountered in a wastewater treatment plant. A screen is a device with opening of any shape, circular or rectangular slots are common.
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 It consists of parallel bars or rods, called a bar rack or bar screen

It may consist of wires, gratings, wire mesh or perforated plate, and is called a screen.

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Bar Racks
Bar racks are used to protect pumps, valves, pipelines etc. from damage or clogging by rags and large objects. Steels or stainless steels bar of screening surface size ranging 0.6 to 1.5 in. are used,
Generally used in pre-treatment operation The size is classified as coarse.

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Screenings
Screenings are the material retained or bar racks and screens. Coarse screenings consist of materials or debris such as
Plastics Rocks Rags Branches Pieces of lumber Leaves Papers Tree roots, etc.
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 Coarse screenings are collected on racks or bars of 5/8 in. or greater spacing. Fine screenings are retained on screens with openings less than 5/8 in. (15mm).

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Disposal of Screenings
Screenings may be disposed or removed by
Hauling to disposal areas such as landfill, (the most commonly used) Burial on the plant site, for small installation only Incineration As municipal solid wastes, or Discharged to grinders or mascerators where they are ground and returned to the wastewater.

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Communication
To comminute means to cut up into small fragments. Communication are used to cut up coarse solids into a smaller, more uniform size so as
To improve the downstream operation and processes and Grit may include egg shells, bone chips, seeds and large organic particles such as food wastes.

However, the comminuted solids may present downstream problem.

It is particularly bad with rags because the rags tend to recombine after cutting up into ropelike strands, if agitated (in grit chambers and aerated channels). Thus, clogging pump impellers, sludge pipelines, etc.
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Grit Chambers
Grit chambers are used to remove grit
The grit consists of sand, gravel, cinders or other solid materials Grit may include egg shells, bone chips, seeds and large organic particles such as food wastes.

Grit chambers are designed to

Provide protection against abrasion and wear in moving mechanical equipment Reduce the risk of forming heavy deposits in pipelines and channels.

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 It is essential to remove grit ahead of centrifuges, heat exchangers and high-pressure diaphragm pumps
Grit chambers are usually installed after the bar racks and before the primary sedimentation tanks.

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Types of Grit Chambers

Grit chambers may be classified into
Horizontal-flow with square or rectangular section Aerated, and Vortex-type

The horizontal-flow grit chamber has the flow passing through the chamber in a horizontal direction
It has a series of influent distribution vanes or gates and a weir section at the effluent end. The vanes or gates distribute the influent over the cross section of the tank. The distributed wastewater flows in straight lines across the tank The effluent overflows the weir in a free discharge.
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 The aerated grit chamber has a spiral-flow aeration tank

The spiral velocity is induced and controlled by the tank dimensions as well as the amount of air supplied to the unit.

The vortex-type grit chamber uses a cylindrical tank

The flow enter the tank tangentially to create a vortex-flow pattern The grits are separated by centrifugal and gravitational forces

The square horizontal-flow grit chambers are designed to remove 95% of the 100-mesh particles at peak flow. Aerated grit chambers are designed to remove 65-mesh particales (0.2 mm) or larger at peak flow.

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 The vortex-type grit chambers are designed to remove 95% of the 50-mesh (0.33 mm) at peak flow, (85% of 70mesh, 65% of 100-mesh)

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Flow Equalisation
There are variations in the flowrate of influentwastewater and strength (concentration) of wastewater in all wastewater treatment facilities. The purposes of flow equalisation are as follows: To overcome the operational problems caused by flowrate variations, To improve the performance of the downstream processes, To reduce the size and cost of downstream treatment facilities.

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 Flow equalisation is the damping of flowrate variation so that

A constant or nearly constant flowrate is achieved.

Flow equalisation may have

In-line arrangement, or Off-line arrangement.

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In-Line Equalisation
Figure below shows the in-line equalization incorporated in a wastewater treatment plant.
Grit Removal Mixing 00 Equalization Basin Pumping To Primary Treatment

Bar rack and/or Comminutor Untreated Wastewater

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 In in-Line arrangement, all of the flow pass through the equalisation basin.
A considerable amount of constituent and flowrate damping can be achieved by in-line equalisation.

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Off-line Equalisation
The off-line equalisation arrangement is shown below.
Grit Removal Bar Rack And/or Comminutor Mixing OO Equalisation Basin Overflow structure

Untreated Wastewater

To Primary Treatment

Pumping Station

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 In the off-line arrangement, only slight damping is achieved

Only the flowrate above some predetermined flowrate is deverted into the equalisation basin. The pumping requirements are minimised.

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Equalisation Basin
For flow equalisation, the following design factors must be considered:
Basin construction Mixing and air requirement Pump and pump control systems

The basin may be of

Concrete Earthen, or Steel constructin

The earthen basins are the least expensive

The side slopes of basin may very between 3:1 and 2:1.
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Gravity Sedimentation
Sedimentation is the separation from water of suspended particles.
The particles are heavier than water Sedimentation is by gravitational settling.

The terms sedimentation and settling are used interchangeably

A sedimentation basin may also be called as
Sedimentation tank Settling basin, or Settling tank

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 Example of sedimentation applicaton are:

Grit removal and particulate matter removal in the primary settling basin. Biological-floc removal in the activated-sludge settling basin Chemical-floc removal when the chemical coagulation process is used.

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Gravity Sedimentation Tanks

Gravity sedimentation tanks are used to remove slowly settling particles. The sedimentation tanks can be
Rectangular or Circular

The design of sedimentation tanks are based on:

Retention time Surface overflow rate, and Minimum depth

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 The removal efficiency is affected by

The hydraulic flow pattern through the tank.

For maximum settling efficiency, the wastewater flow must be distributed properly through the sedimentation valume. It is important to note that
The energy contained in the incoming wastewater flow must be dissipated before the solids can settle.

After the solids have settled, the settled effluent should be collected without creating serious hydraulic currents
Sedimentation process could be adversely affected by hydraulic currents.
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 Effluent weirs are placed at the end of rectangular sedimentation tanks and
Around the periphery of circular sedimentation tanks.

Effluent weirs are placed to ensure uniform flow out of tanks. The settled solids are removed from the sedimentation tank floor by
Scrapping and hydraulic flow.

Sludge hoppers are used in conventional sedimentation tanks

To collect the concentrated sludge and To prevent removal of excess volume of water with the settled solids.
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 Fig CS and Fig RS are the cross-section diagrams of conventional sedimentation tanks.

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Retention Time
The gravity sedimentation tanks are normally designed to provide for 2-hr retention based on average flow.
Longer retention period are allowed for light solids or inert solids that do not change during their retention in the tank.

Sedimentation time should not be too long

Because the solids will become too densely compact, affecting solid collection and removal.

Organic solids generally will not compact to more than 5 to 10%.

Inorganic solids will compact up to 20% to 30%.
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 Centrifugal sludge pumps can handle solids up to 5 or 6%

Positive-displacement sludge pumps can pump solids up to 10%.

There is a tendency for sludge to lose fluid propertise when solids are above 10%
And the sludge with solids above 10% must be handled as semisolid rather than a fluid.

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Minimum Dept
The minimum depth of sedimentation tanks is generally 3.0 m or 10 ft.
The minimum diameter of a circular sedimentation tank is 6.0 m or 20 ft. The length-to width ratio of rectangular sedimentation tanks is 5:1.

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Flotation
Flotation process may be used in place of primary sedimentation for removal of suspended and floating solids. Flotation is a unit operation that will separate solids or liquid particles from a liquid phase.
Separation is achieved by the introduction of air bubbles into the liquid phase.

The bubbles will attach to the particulate matter.

The combined air bubbles and particle will create buoyancy forces that are high enough to cause the particle to rise to the surface (floating).
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 In this way, particles or solids that have a higher density than the liquid can then be made to rise.

Flotation can also be used to float particles with lower density than the liquid, such as oil suspension in water.

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Flotation Agents
Air is used as the flotation agent for municipal wastewater treatment. The following methods are used:
Dissolved-Air Flotation
Air is injected while the liquid is under pressure. This is followed by release of the pressure.

Air Flotation
Aeration at atmospheric pressure Air bubbles are formed by introducing air directly into the liquid phase through a revolving impeller or through diffusers.
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 Vacuum Flotation
Saturation with air at atmospheric pressure, followed by application of a vacuum to the liquid. Vacuum flotation consists of saturating the wastewater with air either
Directly in an aeration tank, or By permitting air to enter on the suction side of a wastewater pump.

The application of partial vacuum causes the dissolved air to come out of solution as minute bubbles. The bubbles and attached solid particles rise to the surface, forming a scum blanket which is removed by skimming operation.

For flotation application, design air-solids ratios have not been well defined.
However, air quantities of 2 to 3% by volumne of wastewater flowrate yield satisfactory rasults.

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Chemical Additives
In the flotation operation, various chemical additives are commonly used to enhance the degree of removal. These chemical additives will create a surface or a structure that can easily absorb or entrap air bubbles. Inorganic chemicals such as
Aluminum and ferric salts and activated silica are used They bind the particles together, creating a structure that can easily entrap air bubbles.

101

 Organic polymers are used to change the nature of either the air-liquid interface or the solid-liquid interface or both.
These compounds will collect on the interface to bring about the desired change.

102

Advantages of Flotation
Flotation are used for
Untreated wastewater, and Settled wastewater.

Flotation has the advantage of

High surface-loading rates and High removal of grease and floatable material.

The main advantage of flotation over sedimentation is that

It can remove more completely and in shorter time the very small or light particles that settled slowly.

The floated particles can be collected by a skimming operation.

103

4.0 SECONDARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Conventional Wastewater Treatment Flow Diagram Purpose of Secondary Treatment Biological Treatment
Bacterial Growth Micro-Organism in Biological Treatment Biological Treatment Process

Activated-Sludge Process Trickling Filters Stabilization Ponds

104

Metering

Off-line Equalizer Grit Removal

Optional

C12 mixer

Screen & Communication

Primary Settling

Bio. Process

Sec. Settling

Effluent Filtration
C12 Contact Chamber

Recycle
Backwash Water Storage

Flotation Thickening To Sludge Processing Facilities

Effluent

WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT FLOW DIAGRAM SHOWING THE LOCATION OF PHYSICAL UNIT OPERATIONS
105

Purpose of Secondary Treatment

The secondary treatment is used mainly.
To remove the soluble BOD that has not been removed by the primary treatment and To carry out further removal of suspended solids.

The basic requirements for conventional aerobic secondary biological treatment are
The availability of many microorganisms Good contact between these organisms and the organic material, The availability of oxygen, and Having favorable environmental conditions such as
Favourable temperature and Sufficient time for the organisms to work.

106

 Many methods have been used in the past to meet these basic requirements. The common approaches include:
The activated sludge The trickling filters Oxidation lagoons or ponds.

107

Objectives of Biological Treatment

The main objectives of the biological treatment of wastewater are:
Coagulation and removal of the nonsettleable colloidal solids and Stablization of the organic matter.

For domestic wastewater, the principal objective is:

Reduction of the organic content and the nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.

For agricultural return wastewater, the main objective is:

Removal of the nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, that are responsible for stimulating the growth of aquatic plants.
108

 For industrial wastewater, the main objective is to remove or lower the concentration of organic and inorganic compounds.

109

Use of Microorganisms
A variety of microorganisms, primarily bacteria, are used for:
The coagulating of nonsettleable colloidal solids. The removal of carbonaceous BOD, and The stabilization of organic matter.

The colloidal and dissolved carbonaceous organic matter are converted by microorganisms into various gases and into cell tissue.
The specific gravity of the cell tissue is slightly greater than that of water
Thus, the removal of resulting cells from the treated liquid can be achieved by gravity settling.
110

Carbon for Microorganisms

For an organism to reproduce and function properly, it must have
An energy source Carbon for the synthesis of new cellular material Nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, calcium, etc.

Carbon and energy sources are usually referred to as substrates.

Organic matter and carbon dioxide are two of the most common sources of cell carbon for microorganisms.

111

 The energy needed for cell synthesis may be supplied by

Light or Chemical oxidation reaction.

112

Bacterial Growth
Secondary treatment uses biological processes to stabilize waste components
Most biological treatment processes are comprised of complex, interrelated, mixed biological populations. The mixture of microorganisms is usually referred to as biomass.

A portion of the waste is oxidized, releasing energy,

The remainder is used as building blocks of protoplasm.

The energy released by biomass metabolism is used to produce the new units of protoplasm.
113

 Thus, the advantage of using the biomass to stabilize waste is that

It provides the energy and basic chemical components required for reproduction.

114

Biological Waste Conversion

The process of biological waste conversion may be expressed in terms of the following equation:
Waste (electron donor) + Biomass + Electron More + End Products acceptor Biomass Proper (Oxidized Environmental electron donor, Conditions Reduced electron acceptor)

115

 The waste generally serves as an electron donor

And it needs an electron acceptor.

The electron acceptors include:

Molecular oxygen Carbon dioxide Oxidized forms of nitrogen Sulphur and organic substances.

116

Electron Acceptors & End Products

The end products of the reaction are determined by the electron acceptor. A list of typical end products produced by various electron acceptors is given as follows:
Electron Acceptors
Molecular oxygen Oxidized nitrogen Oxidized sulphur CO2, acetic acid, formic acid Complex organics

End Products
Water, CO2, oxidized nitrogen N2, N2O, NO, CO2, H20 H2S, S, CO2, H2O CH4, CO2, H2 H2, simple organics, CO2, H20

117

 In general, the energy level of end products are much lower than that of waste components,
As a result, there is a release of energy.

118

Environmental Control
It is indicated in the earlier equation that proper environmental conditions are required for the reaction to take place. The environmental conditions are required by the biomass, not the electron donor or acceptor. The environmental conditions include.
pH Temperature Nutrients Ionic balance, etc.
119

 biomass can function over a wide pH range generally from 5 to 9.

However, some microbes requires a much narrower pH range. It is also important to maintain a relatively constant pH in the process. Continual changes in pH are detrimental.

Most organisms can function well over a broad range of temperature

But do not adjust well to frequent fluctuation of even a few degrees.

Thus it is necessary to have a controlled environment and biological community (biomass) in the design of biological waste-treatment units.
120

Need for Sludge Disposal

More biomass is produced after the process of biological waste conversion, see equation given earlier.
This is desirable because it provides a continual production of the organisms required to stabilize the waste.

However, an excess level will build up and the process could cause choking on organisms.
It is necessary that some organisms are wasted from the system.

The wasted organisms are called sludge.

The ultimate disposal of sludge is a major cost companent of all biologically based processes.

121

Terms used for Biological Treatment Processes

The following terms are commonly used to define various biological processes:
Aerobic processes
Biological treatment processes that occur in the presence of oxygen.

Anaerobic processes
Biological treatment processes that occur in the absence of oxygen.

Nitrification
The biological process by which ammonia is converted first to nitrite and then to nitrate.

Denitrification
The biological process by which nitrate is converted to nitrogen and other gaseous end products.

122

 Anoxic denitrification
The process by which nitrate nitrogen is converted biologically to nitrogen gas in the absence of oxygen. This process is also known as anaerobic denitrification.

Carbonaceous BOD removal

The biological conversion of the carbonaceous organic matter in wastewater to cell tissue and various gaseous end products. In the conversion, it is assumed that the nitrogen present in the vaious compounds is converted to ammonia.

Biological nutrient removal

The removal of nitrogen and phosphorus in biological treatment processes.

Substrate
The organic matter or nutrients that are converted during biological treatment or that may be limiting in biological treatment.
123

 Suspended growth processes

The biological treatment processes in which the microorganisms responsible for the conversion of the organic matter or other constituents in the wastewater to gases and cell tissue are maintained in suspension within the liquid.

Attached growth processes

The biological treatment processes in which the micro organisms responsible for the conversion of the organic matter or other constituents in the wastewater to gas and cell tissue are attached to some inert medium such as rock, slag, or specially designed ceramic or plastic materials. These processes are also known as fixed film processes.

124

Various Biological Treatment Processes

There are five major groups of biological treatment, namely:
Aerobic processes Anoxic processes Anaerobic processes Combined aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic processes, and Pond processes

These processes are further subdivided, depending on whether treatment is accomplished in:
Suspended growth systems, Attached growth systems, or Combinations thereof (of the two).
125

Microbiology in Wastewater Treatment

In nature, the key role of the bacteria is to decompose organic matter produced by other living organisms.
All biological processes for wastewater treatment are in fact derived from processes occurring in nature.
They speed up the decomposition of waste by controlling the environment required for optimum growth of the microorganism involved.

126

 The principal applications of these processes are for:

The removal of the carbonaceous organic matter in wastewater, usually measured as BOD, total organic carbon (TOC), or chemical oxygen demand (COD). Nitrification Denitrification Phosphorus removal, and Waste stabilization

127

Aerobic Suspended Growth Treatment Processes

The various suspended growth biological treatment processes for the removal of carbonaceous organic matter are as follows:
The activated sludge process Aerated lagoons A sequencing batch reactor, and The aerobic digestion process.

The activated sludge process is most commonly used for the secondary treatment of domestic wastewater.
This process is presented in the following pages.
128

Activated Sludge Process

The activated sludge process was developed in England in 1914. The activated sludge process derives its name from the biological mass (activated sludge) produced when air is continuously injected into the wastewater. Many versions of the original process are in use today
Fundamentally they are all similar.

129

 Basically, in this process:

A mixture of wastewater and biological sludge (micro-organisms) is agitated and aerated.

The sludge (biological solids) are then separated from the treated wastewater and returned to the aeration process as needed.

130

Activated Sludge
In the activated sludge process, organic waste is introduced into a reactor (aeration tank) where an aerobic bacterial culture is maintained in suspension.
In this process, microorganisms are mixed thoroughly with the organics under conditions that stimulate their growth through the use of organics as foods. As the microorganisms grow and are mixed by agitation of the air, the individual organisms clump together (flocculate) to form an active biological called activated sludge.
The mixture of activated sludge and wastewater in the reactor (aeration tank) is called mixed liquor.

131

Return Sludge
The mixed liquor then flows from the reactor to a secondary clarifier.
The activated sludge will settle out in the secondary clarifier.

Since high population of microbes is required to permit rapid breakdown of the organics in wastewater, most of the settled sludge is returned to the reactor, hence it is called return sludge. Some of the return sludge has to be diverted or wasted to the sludge handling system for treatment and disposal.
Because more activated sludge is produced than in desirable in the process.
132

Chemical Equation
In the reactor, the bacterial culture performs the conversion as described by the following equations: Oxidation and Synthesis:
COHNS + O2 + nutrients CO2 + NH3 + C5H7NO2 + other end products

(organic matters)

(new bacterial cells)

Endogenous respiration:
bacteria

C5H7NO2 + 5O2 SCO2 + 2H2O + NH3 + energy (cells)

133

 In these equation, the organic matter in wastewater is represented by COHNS.

Although the endogenous respiration reaction results in relatively simple end products and energy, stable organic end products are also formed. The aerobic environment in the reactor is achieved by the use of diffusers or mechanical aeration, which also serves to maintain the mixed liquor in a completely mixed regime. In the activated sludge process, the bacteria are the most important microorganisms because they are responsible for the decomposition of the organic material in the influent.
134

 In the reactor or aeration tank, a portion of the organic waste is used by aerobic and facultative bacteria to obtain energy for the synthesis of the remainder of the organic material into new cells.
Only a portion of the original waste is actually oxidized to low energy compounds such as NO3, SO4, and CO2. The remainder is synthesized into a cellular material. Also, many intermediate products are formed before the end products are produced.

In general, the bacteria in the activated-sludge process include member of:

The genera such as Pseudomonas

135

Zoogloea

Achromobacter Flavobacterium Nocardia Bdellovibrio Mycobacterium

And the two nutrifying bacteria

Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter

136

Conventional Activated Sludge Systems

In conventional activated sludge systems, it is typically required that
The wastewater be aerated for six to eight hours in long, rectangular reactors. About 8m of air is required to treat each m of wastewater Sufficient air is used to keep the sludge in suspension.

The injection of air is at near the bottom by the aeration tank (reactor) through a system of diffusers. The volume of sludge returned to the aeration tank is about 20 to 30 percent of the wastewater flow.
137

Wasted Sludge
The activated sludge process is controlled by wasting a portion of the microorganisms each day. This is carried out
To maintain the proper amount of the microorganisms to efficiently degrade the BOD. Wasting means that a portion of the microorganisms is discarded from the process. The discarded microorganisms are called waste activated sludge (WAS).

A balance is the then achieved between growth of new organisms and their removal by wasting.
138

 If too much sludge is wasted, the concentration of microorganisms in the mixed liquor will becomes too low for effective treatment. If too little sludge is wasted, a large concentration of microorganisms will accumulate and, ultimately, overflow the secondary tank and flow into the receiving stream.

139

Disinfection Sewage in Rack Grit Chamber Primary Settling Tank Secondary Settling Tank

Aeration Tank

To stream

Digester

Fig. 5-18. Flow Diagram of Conventional Activated Sludge Plant

140

Practical Application
The practical application of the activated sludge process is considered briefly as follows:
In the design of the activated sludge process, consideration must be given to
Selection of the reactor type Loading criteria Sludge production Oxygen required and transfer Nutrient requirements Control of Filamentous organisms, and Effluent characteristics.

141

Trickling Filters
Trickling filters have been a popular biological treatment process for nearly 100 years. Trickling filters have a bed of coarse material (media) over which wastewater is continuously distributed. The coarse materials include:
Stones or rocks plastic

142

 Ideally, the filter medium should possess the following:

Providing a high surface area per unit of volume High durability Low cost Does n clog easily

Rock media such as high-quality granite or blast furnace slag were commonly used until the mid 1960s.
Rock media have been replaced by plastic, redwood, or pressure treated wood because of problems such as minimal void areas and the potential for biomass clogging.

143

Sewage in Rack Grit Chamber

Primary Settling Tank Trickling Filter Secondary Settling Tank Digester Recirculation Disinfection

Stream

Fig. 5-15. Flow Chart of Trickling-Filter Plant

144

Distributing Systems
The wastewater is typically distributed over the surface of the rocks by rotating arm
The rotary distributor has become a standard trickling filter process because it is reliable and easy to maintain.

The distributor has two or more arms mounted on a pivot in the centre of the filter, revolving in a horizontal plane
The arms are hollow and contain nozzles The wastewater is discharged through these nozzles over the filter bed.

145

 The distributor unit is driven by

An electric motor, or By the dynamic reaction of the wastewater discharging from the nozzles.

146

Secondary Clarifier
As the wastewater trickles through the bed, a microbial growth establishes itself on the surface of the stone or packing in a fixed film.
The microorganisms cling and grow in a slime on the rocks as they feed on the organic matters.

Excess growth of microorganisms, if not removed, would cause undesirably high levels of suspended solids in the plant effluent.
Thus a sedimentation tank is needed to allow these solids to settle out in it. The sedimentation tank is termed as secondary clarifier or final clarifier.
147

 Thus, the function of the secondary settling tank is to produce a clarified effluent
All the sludge from trickling filter settling tanks is removed to sludge processing facilities (digester).

148

Recirculation
In trickling filter design, recirculation is provided for return of portion of the effluent to flow through the filter.
The ratio of the returned flow to the incoming flow is called the recirculation ratio.

Recirculation practised in stone filters has the following advantages:

It increases contract efficiency by bringing the waste into contact more than once with active biological material. It dampens variations in loading over a 24 hour period. The strength of the recirculated flow lags behind that of the incoming wastewater. Thus, recirculation dilutes strong influent and supplements weak influents.
149

 It improves distribution over the surface, thus reducing the tendency to clog and also reduce filter flies. It prevents the biological slimes from dying out and dying during night time periods when flows may be too low to keep the filter wet continuously,

Recirculation practised for plastic media will provide the desired wetting rate to keep the microorganisms alive.

150

Underdrains
The wastewater collection system in a trickling filter has underdrains.
The underdrains catch the filtered wastewater and solids discharged from the filter medium and convey them to the final sedimentation tank.

151

Stabilization Ponds
Stabilization ponds have been used to treat wastewater
Particularly as wastewater treatment systems for small communities.

Domestic wastewater can be effectively stabilized by the natural biological process that occurs in shallow ponds. Waste stabilization pond has been used as an all inclusive term that refers to a pond of lagoon used to treat organic waste by biological and physical processes.

152

 In fact, many terms have been used to describe different types of systems employed in wastewater treatment. In recent years, oxidation pond has been widely used as a collective term of all types of ponds.

In general, stabilization ponds can be classified according to the presence of oxygen, as: Aerobic Facultative Anaerobic Maturation or tertiary, and Aerated

153

Aerobic Ponds
Aerobic ponds have the following features:
Large, shallow earthen basins or ponds, less than 1.5 m in depth Used for the treatment of wastewater by natural processes involving the use of both
Algae and Bacteria

Dissolved oxygen is maintained in ponds throughout the entire depth, mainly by the action of photosynthesis. The pond is shallow to allow light to penetrate to the bottom, thereby maintaining active algae photosynthesis throughout the entire system. Stabilization of the organic material in the aerobic pond is achieved by the action of aerobic bacteria.

154

 In aerobic photosynthesis ponds, the oxygen is supplied by

Natural surface reaeration, and Algae photosynthesis

Algae photosynthesis will release oxygen

The oxygen is used by the bacteria in the aerobic degradation of organic matter. Nutrients and carbon dioxide produced by the aerobic degradation are then used by the algae.

155

Facultative Ponds
Facultative ponds are the most common type used as wastewater treatment systems for small communities. Facultative ponds have the following features:
The stabilization of waste is brought about by a combination of
Aerobic Anaerobic, and Facultative (aerobic-anaerobic) bacteria

The ponds are 1 to 2.5m deep, having three zones:

An aerobic upper zone where aerobic bacteria and algae exist in symbolic relationship, maintained by photosynthesis and surface reaeration.

156

 A facultative middle zone that is partly aerobic and partly anaerobic, in which the decomposition of organic waste is carried out by facultative bacteria. An anaerobic bottom zone where decomposition of accumulated solids are carried out by anaerobic bacteria.

157

Facultative Stabilization Processes

The following processes are encountered in the facultative stabilization ponds.
Large solids will settle out at the bottom to form an anaerobic sludge. The solids in the sludge are broken down by anaerobic bacteria, producing dissolved organics and gases such as CO2, H2S, and CH4 which are either oxidized by the aerobic bacteria or vented to the atmosphere. Soluble and colloidal organic materials will be oxidized by aerobic and facultative bacteria. Oxygen for oxidation is released by algae which grow abundantly near the surface. Organic oxidation produces carbon dioxide, serving as a carbon source for the algae. Oxygen is maintained in the upper layer of facultative ponds by the presence of algae and by surface reaeration.
158

Advantages of Facultative Ponds

Facultative ponds are popular because of the following reasons:
Cost Factor
Capital, operating and maintenance costs are less than those of other biological systems.

Management Factor
Long retention times facilitate the management of large fluctuation in wastewater flow and strength with no significant effect on effluent quality.

159

Anaerobic Ponds
Anaerobic ponds are used mainly as a pretreatment process to treat high temperature, high-strength organic wastewater containing high concentration of solids.
However, they have been used to treat municipal wastewater as well.

Anaerobic ponds have the following features:

Deep earthen ponds with appropriate inlet and outlet pipings Depths up to 30ft (9.1m) have been built to conserve heat energy and to maintain anaerobic conditions. Typically, anaerobic conditions prevail throughout the entire depth, except for extremely surface zone.
160

 The wastes that are added to the pond will settle to the bottom. The partially clarified effluent is usually discharged to another treatment process for further treatment.

161

Anaerobic Stabilization Process

In anaerobic ponds, stabilization is obtained by
A combination of precipitation and the anaerobic conversion of organic wastes to
CO2 CH4 Other gaseous end products Organic acids, and Cell tissues

There are two distinct stages in anaerobic treatment of complex waste:

162

 The first stage is known as acid fermentation, involving the breakdown of complex organic materials to (mainly) short-chain acids and alcohols. The second stage is known as methane fermentation, involving the conversion of these materials to gases, mainly CO2 and CH4.

163

Anaerobic Conditions
The factor for determining whether the biological activity
The magnitude of the organic loading and The availability of dissolved oxygen

The anaerobic condition of a pond is maintained by applying a BOD5 load that exceeds oxygen production from photo-synthesis.
The decrease in surface area and the increase in depth will reduce photosynthesis.

164

 Anaerobic ponds become turbid (muddy and thick) from the presence of reduced metal sulphides
Thus, the penetration of light is restricted and algae growth becomes negligible.

165

Advantages of Stabilization Ponds

Stabilization ponds are popular in small towns. Particularly in sites
Where extensive industrial expansion is not anticipated, and Where the topography and soil condition of land is suitable for siting.

The advantage are:

Lower capital or initial cost, compared to that of a mechanical plant Lower operating costs Possible regulation of effluent discharge, this enables control of pollution during critical times of year. Treatment system is not significantly affected by a leaky sewer system that collects storm water.
166

Disadvantages of Stabilization Ponds

Disadvantages are:
Extensive land area involved Poor assimilative capacity for certain industrial wastes Potential odour problems The town may expand and new development will intrude the lagoon site Difficult to meet the effluent quality standard for suspended solids of 30 mg/L

167

5.0 CHEMICAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Chemical Precipitation Adsorption

Disinfection
Disinfection with Chlorine Compounds Other Means of Disinfection

168

Chemical Unit Processes

Chemical unit processes used for the treatment of wastewater are brought about by means of or through chemical reaction.
They are usually used together with the physical unit operations and the biological unit processes.

Chemical unit processes are additive processes (with the exception of activated-carbon adsorption)
Chemicals are added to the wastewater to achieve or enhance the removal of suspended solids The physical unit operation and the biological unit processes are subtractive in removing the suspended solids from the wastewater.
169

 Chemical unit processes, together with various physical operations are developed for
The complete secondary treatment of untreated wastewater, including the nitrogen removal and phosphorus removal.

Chemical unit processes are also used together with biological treatment
To remove phosphorus by chemical precipitation.

170

Chemical Precipitation
Chemical precipitation in wastewater treatment involves
The addition of chemicals to change the physical state of dissolved and suspended solids, and To facilitate the removal of the suspended solids by sedimentation.

Thus, chemical precipitation is used to

Improve the performance of primary settling facilities Remove phosphorus.

Phosphorus removal is done in advanced wastewater treatment.

171

Chemical Precipitation & Gravity Sedimentation

Light weight suspended solids and colloidal solids can be removed by chemical precipitation and gravity sedimentation.
The tiny particles are agglomerated into large particles by the chemical precipitation. The large particles can then settle rapidly in normal sedimentation tanks.

The precipitation reaction results in removal of suspended solids.

However, it also increases the amount of sludge to be handled. The chemical sludge must be taken into account together with the characteristics of the original suspended solids in the evaluation of sludge processing systems.

172

Coagulants
Chemicals used as coagulants in wastewater treatment are:
Aluminium sulphate (Alum), A12 (SO4)3.18H2O A12 (SO4)3.14H2O Ferric chloride, FeC13 Ferrous Sulphate, FeSO4, 7H2O Ferric Sulphate, Fe(SO4)3, Fe2 (SO4)3, 3H2O Lime, Ca (OH)2 (XH2O) indicates the number of water molecules)

The choice of coagulant depends upon:

The chemical characteristics of the particles being removed The pH of the wastewater, and The cost and availability of the precipitation.
173

Rapid Mixer
A rapid mixing system is normally required in chemical precipitation The rapid mixing system and the flocculation system are installed ahead of the rectangular sedimentation tank.
Influents
OO Flocculation Sedimentation Effluent (Rect. Tank)

Rapid Mixing Sludge

174

 In the case of circular sedimentation tank, the rapidmixer and flocculation units are built into the tank.
Rapid mixers are designed to give 30s retention at average flow
Sufficient trubulence is required to mix the chemicals with the influents.

The flocculation units are designed for slow mixing at 20min retention
The particles are caused to collide by flocculation, and increase in size, without excessive shearing.

175

Improvement in Plant Performance

It is possible to obtain a clear effluent by chemical precipitation
Substantially free from matter in suspension or in the colloidal state.

Removal of soluble organics is a function of the coagulant chemical,

Iron salt produces best results, and lime the poorest.

Metal removal is a function of pH and the ionic state of the metal.

176

 Chemical precipitation can remove

95 percent of the suspended solids Up to 50 percent of the soluble organics and the bulk of the heavy metals in a wastewater.

In comparison, a sedimentation without chemical precipitation can remove

Only 50 to 70 percent of the total suspended matter, and 30 to 40 percent of the organic matter.

177

Chemical Precipitation for Phosphate Removal

The removal pf phosphorus from wastewater can be carried out by
Making phosphate into suspended solids and Subsequently removing these solids.

Phosphorus can be incorporated or formed into either

Biological solids, or Chemical precipitates

This topic will be discussed in the advanced wastewater treatment.

178

Adsorption Process
Adsorption process is involved in collecting soluble substances that are in solution on a suitable interface.
The interface can be between the liquid and a gas, a solid or another liquid.

Adsorption process on an activated carbon is employed to improve the quality of treated wastewater effluent (after the normal biological treatment).
The carbon is used to remove a portion of the remaining dissolved organic matter.

Activated carbon absorbers are commonly used for odour control.

179

Activated Carbon
The preparation of activated carbon is briefly described as follows: First, char is made from materials such as:
Almond Coconut Woods, Coal, etc.

Char is produced by
Heating the materials (in a retort) to a red heat to drive off hydrocarbon

Activation is then carried out by exposing the char to an oxidised gas at a high temperature.
The gas develops a process structure in the char, creating a large internal surface area.
180

 After activation, the carbon is then separated into different sizes with different capacities.

The two size characteristics are:

Powdered activated carbon (PAC), it has a diameter of less than 200 mesh. Granular activated carbon (GAC), it has a diameter greater than 0.1 mm.

Both GAC and PAC are used for wastewater treatment. Activated carbon has different rates of adsorption for different substances.
181

 Activated carbon may be effective in removing

Hydrogen sulphide and will work on reducing organic odour.

The removal of odours depend on the concentration of the hydrocarbon in the odorous gas
The hydrocarbon are absorbed first before compounds such as hydrogen sulphide are removed.

182

Carbon Regeneration
For economical application, it is essential to use an efficient means of regenerating the carbon after its adsorption capacity has been reached. Regeneration of granular carbon can be easily done in a furnace by oxidizing the organic matter and thus removing it from the carbon surface.
However, about 5 to 10 percent of the carbon is also destroyed in the process of carbon regeneration and must be replaced with new carbon.

183

 The methodology for regenerating powdered activated carbon is not well-defined.

This is a major problem with the application of PAC.

The use of PAC produced from solid wastes may obviate the need to regenerate the spent carbon.

184

Disinfection
Disinfection is a process
To render water safe from pathogenic bacteria

Disinfection can be accomplished by the use of:

Chemical agents Physical agent Mechanical means, and Radiation.

185

Chemical Agents
The chemical agents include:
Chlorine and chlorine compounds Bromine Iodine Ozone Alcohols Soaps and synthetic detergents Various alkalies and acids

The most common disinfectants are the oxidizing chemicals, and

Chlorine is the most commonly used.
186

 Bromine and iodine have also been used for wastewater disinfection. Ozone is a highly effective disinfectant
Its use is increasing

Highly acidic or alkaline water can also be used to destroy pathogenic bacteria
Water with a pH greater than 11 or less than 3 is relatively toxic to most bacteria.

187

Physical Agents
Physical disinfectants are
Heat and Light

Heating water to the boiling point will destroy the major disease producing bacteria.
But, it is not economically feasible to disinfect large quantities of wastewater by heating because of the high cost involved.

Sunlight is a good disinfectant

Particularly, the ultraviolet radiation.
188

 Ultraviolet rays emitting from special lamps have been used to sterilize small quantities of water
The efficiency of the process depends on the rays penetration into water. It is difficult to use ultraviolet radiation in aqueous systems.

189

Factors Influencing Disinfections

The following factors will affect the disinfection performance:
Contact time Concentration and type of chemical agent Temperature Number and types of organisms Nature of suspending liquid

In general:
The longer the contact time, the greater the kill, for a given concentration of disinfectant Increasing the temperature gives more rapid kill
190

 The larger the organism concentration, the longer the time required for a given kill,
Although in a dilute system such as wastewater, the concentration of organisms is not a major consideration.

The effectiveness of disinfectants will also depend on the types of organisms

Viable growing bacteria cells are easy to kill But, bacterial spores are extremely resistant; many of the chemical disinfectants normally used will not be effective.

191

Chlorination
Chlorination is used because:
It is readily available as gas, liquid or powder Cheap Easy to use, high solubility (7000 mg/L) It leaves a residual in solution which is not harmful and helps protect distribution system It is very toxic to most microorganisms.

Chlorine gas is normally used as a bioxide and disinfectant in water.

192

Chlorine Compounds
The most common chlorine compounds used in wastewater treatment plants include:
Chlorine gas, C12 Calcium hypochlorite, Ca(OC1)2 Sodium hypochlorite, NaOC1 Chlorine dioxide, C1O2

The use of calcium and sodium hypochlorite is mostly found in very small treatment plant such as package plants
Because simplicity and safety are for more important than cost in this application.
193

 Sodium hypochloride is used at large wastewater treatment plants for safety reason. Chlorine gas is the most commonly used form.

194

Superchlorination / Dechlorination
Superchlorination / dechlorination
It is used where pollution is high, lowland river waters Heavy initial dose of chlorine is added, killing everything Any objectional excess is then removed by dechlorination using sulphur dioxide Contact time is 20-30 minutes It leaves a small amount of residual chlorine.

195

Dechlorination
Chlorination is commonly used to destroy pathogenic and other harmful organisms that may cause danger to human health.
However, some organic compounds in wastewater may react with the chlorine to produce toxic compounds that can cause long-term adverse effect on the use of water.

It is therefore necessary to dechlorinate wastewater treated with chlorine in certain applications

So that the effects of the toxic chlorine residual on the environment will be minimized.

196

Sulphur Dioxide for Dechlorination

Dechlorination is applied after the breakpoint chlorination process for the removal of ammonia nitrogen. Sulphur dioxide is used most commonly for dechlorination
Activated carbon has also been used.

Sulphur dioxide gas added in water will successively remove:

Free chlorine Monochloramine Dichloramine Nitrogen trichloride and Poly-n-chlor compounds

197

 Reaction with chlorine produces:

SO2 + H20 > HSO3 + H+ HOC1 + HSO3 > C1 + SO4 + 2H+ SO2 + HOC1 + H2O C1 + SO4 + 3H+

Reaction with chloramine gives

SO2 + H20 > HSO3 + H+ NH2C1 + HSO3 + H20 > C1 + SO4 + NH4 + H+ SO2 + NH2C1 + 2H20 > C1 + SO4 + NH4+ 2H+

198

Ozonization
Ozonization process or ozonation is used to:
Remove taste and odour as well as dissolved / colloidal organic matter Good colour removal Contact time is 5 minutes The process is very effective but expensive

Ozone is a highly unstable toxic blue gas; it should be produced on site as close to the point of use as possible. Ozone is also a very effective virucide
It is generally believed to be more effective than clorine.
199

 Ozonation does not produce dissolve solids and is not affected by the ammonium ion or pH influent to the process. For these reasons, ozonation is considered a viable alternative to either chlorination or hypochlorination, especially where dechlorination may be required.

200

Notes on Ozone
The application of Ozone to disinfect water supplies was first carried out in France in the early 1900s.
Eventually its use spread into several Western European countries (primarily in Europe).

The common application for ozone at the European installation is to control taste -, odour -, and colour producing agents. Being chemically unstable, ozone decomposes to oxygen very rapidly after generation,
Thus it must be generated on-site.
201

 The most efficient method of producing ozone is by electrical discharge

Ozone is generated either form air or pure oxygen when a high voltage is applied across the gap of narrowly spaced electrodes.

202

6.0 ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Additional Treatment for Water Reuse Various Advanced Wastewater Treatment Methods Suspended Solids Removal by Filtration Filter Applications Refractory Adsorption Carbon Adsorption Phosphorus Removal Nitrogen Sources and Control Biological Nitrification Biological Denitrification Ammonia Stripping Removal of Toxic Compounds
203

Additional Treatment for Water Reuse

Advanced wastewater treatment refers to the additional treatment needed to
Remove contaminants (both suspended and dissolved substances) remaining after conventional secondary treatment
The term tertiary treatment is also used.

Contaminants of municipal water results from:

Human excreta Food preparation wastes, and A wide variety of organic and inorganic industrial wastes.

204

 Conventional treatment uses physical-biological processes, and possibly chlorination, to

Reduce biochemical oxygen demands, suspended solids and pathogen.

The maximum acceptable level of organic matter in a wastewater effluent after biological treatment is defined in terms of BOD and suspended-solids concentrations. Secondary treatment processes when coupled with disinfection (mainly chlorination) may remove:
Over 85 percent of the BOD and suspended solids and Nearly all pathogen.

205

 However, secondary treatment processes can achieve only minor removal of some pollutents such as
Nitrogen Phosphorus Soluble COD and Heavy metals

These pollutents may be of major concern in some circumstances

Thus, it may be necessary to remove these pollutents by advanced wastewater treatment.

Advanced wastewater treatment processes improve effluent quality to the point that it is adequate for many reuse purposes.
206

Various Advanced Wastewater Treatment Methods

The popular advanced treatment methods are given as follows: Suspended-solids Removal
Filtration through granular media Chemical coagulation and clarification

Organic Matter Removal

Adsorption on granular activated carbon Extended biological oxidation

Phosphorus Removal
Biological-chemical precipitation and clarification Chemical coagulation and clarification.
207

 Nitrogen Removal
Biological nitrification / Denitrification Ammonia reduction by air stripping

Heavy Metal Removal

Lime precipitation

Dissolved-Solids Removal
Reverse osmosis

208

Suspended Solids Removal by Filtration

Secondary treatment processes, such as the activatedsludge process, are highly efficient for removal of biodegradable colloidal and soluble organs.
However, the typical effluent still contains a BOD of 20 to 50 mg/L.

The secondary clarifiers are not perfectly efficient to settle out the microorganisms from the biological treatment processes.
These organisms will contribute both to the suspended solids and to the BOD5 because the process of biological decay of dead cells exerts an oxygen demand.
209

 Filtration process can be used to remove the residual suspended solids

Including the unsettled microorganisms The residual BOD5 is also reduced by removing the microorganisms

210

Purpose of Filtering
Removal of suspended solids from the effluent of a conventional treatment plant may serve to
Reduce the organic content, or To pretreat the wastewater for subsequent processing.

Examples are:
For effective disinfection, it is necessary to remove suspended solids that can harbour and protect pathogenic bacteria and virus from the oxidizing action by chlorine or ozone. To prevent fouling, carbon adsorption columns are preceded by filtration.

211

Filter Applications
Conventional sand filters, similar to those used in water treatment, can be used.
These filters often clog quickly, thus frequent back washing is required.

It is desirable to have
The larger filter grain sizes at the top of the filters This will lengthen filter runs and reduce backwashing Also, it will permit the trapping of some of the larger particles of biological floc at the surface without plugging the filter.

212

 Multimedia filters use

Low-density coal for the large grain sizes Medium density sand for intermediate sizes, and High density garnet for the smallest size filter grains.

This is so arranged that

During backwashing, the greater density offsets the smaller diameter And the coal will remain on top, the sand in the middle while the garnet remains on the bottom.

Typically, plain filter can reduce the suspended solids of activated sludge effluent from 25 to 10 mg/L.

213

Refractory Organics
Soluble organic materials that are resistent to biological breakdown will persist in the effluent
Even after the processes of secondary treatment, coagulation, sedimentation and filtration.

These persistent materials are called refractory organics.

Refrectory organics can be detected in the effluent as soluble COD
The typical values of secondary effluent COD are 30 to 60 mg/L.
214

Carbon Adsorption
Refractory organics can be effectively removed by
Adsorbing them on activated carbon.

Carbon is activated by heating in the absence of oxygen

The activation process results in the formation of many pores within each carbon particle. The greater the surface area of the carbon (with many pores), the greater its capacity to hold organic material.

The current practice is installing the granular-carbon columns as tertiary conditioning after the chemical precipitation and granular-media filtration.
215

 After the adsorption capacity of the carbon has been exhausted, the spent carbon can be regenerated for reuse. Powdered carbon is commonly used in water treatment
But it has not widely used in wastewater processing because of the difficulty of regeneration.

216

Phosphorus Removal
Phosphorus is typically found as mono-hydrogen phosphate (HPO4) in wastewater. Chemical precipitation, using alum and iron coagulants or lime, is effective in phosphate removal.
Alum, double sulphate of aluminium and potassium.

The precipitation reaction between alum and phosphate is:

A12(SO4)3 + 2HPO4 2A1PO4 + 2H ++ 2SO4

The precipitation reaction between ferric chloride and phosphate is:

FeC13 + hpo4 FePO4 +H+ + 3C1
217

 The chemical reaction using lime is

5Ca(OH)2 + 3HPO4 Ca5(PO4)3 OH + 3H2O + 6OH

Alum and Ferric chloride reduce pH

Whereas lime increases pH.

The effective range of pH for alum and ferric chloride is between 5.5 and 7.0.
Lime is added when there is not enough alkalinity so as to buffer the system to this range of pH.

218

Phosphorus Removal by Chemical Addition

The addition of certain chemicals, (such as alum, ferric chloride or sulphate, and lime) to wastewater produces insoluble or low-solubility salts. In the precipitation of phosphorus, a reaction basin and a settling tank are required for the removal of precipitate. Since ferric chloride and alum may be added directly in the aeration tank in the activated sludge system,
The aeration tank can serve as a reaction tank, and The precipitate can be removed in the secondary clarifier.
219

 But, this arrangement is not possible with lime

When lime is used, the high pH required with lime to produce the precipitate is harmful to the activated sludge organism.

The use of lime for phosphorus removal is declining due to

The operation and maintenance problems associated with the handling, storage, and feeding of lime.

220

Nitrogen Sources
Most nitrogen in surface waters is from:
Land drainage and Dilution of wastewater effluents

In domestic waste, the primary sources of nitrogen are:

Faeces Urine, and Food-processing discharges

Bacteria decomposition produces ammonia by deamination of nitrogenuous organic compounds

221

 Continued aerobic oxidation results in nitrification. The nitrogen forms of interest are
Organic Inorganic and Gaseous nitrogen

222

Nitrogen Control
Nitrogen in any soluble form CNH3, NH4+, NO2 and NO3 but not N2 gas is a nutrient and
The removal of nitrogen from wastewater may be necessary to help control algal growth in the receiving body.

Nitrogen in the form of ammonia exerts an oxygen demand and

This can be toxic to fish

Removal of nitrogen can be carried out either by

Biological process, or Chemical process.
223

 The biological process is called

Nitrification/denitrification

The chemical process is called

Ammonia stripping.

224

Biological Nitrification
The removal of nitrogen can be effectively carried out by
Biological nitrification denitrification

It is a two-step process:
The first step is the conversion of ammonia aerobically to nitrate (NO3) which is termed nitrification. The second step is the conversion of nitrates to nitrogen gas, this is termed denitrification.

The nitrification step is expressed in chemical term as follows:

NH4++ 2O2 NO3 + H2O + 2H+ Bacteria must be present to cause the reaction to occur.
225

 The rate of nitrification in wastewater is essentially linear

It is a function of time and independent of ammonia nitrogen concentration Temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen are important parameters Nitrification rate decreases with temperature drop The optimum pH for nitrification is 8.2 8.6.

226

Biological Denitrification
Nitrie and nitrate are bacterially reduced to gaseous nitrogen by biological denitrification. Denitrification is an anoxic process because it occurs in the absence of dissolved oxygen.

The process can be expressed chemically as follows: 2NO3 + Organic matter N2 + CO2 + H2O
As indicated above, organic matter (carbon) is needed for denitrification
The wastewater to be denitrified must contain sufficient carbon to provide the energy source for the bacteria.
227

 The carbon requirement may be provided by wastewater and cell materials, or

By an external source such as methanol (CH3OH)

An organic carbon source acts as a hydrogen donor (oxygen acceptor) and

To supply carbon for biological synthesis.

228

Ammonia Stripping
Nitrogen in the form of ammonia can be removed form wastewater by the physical-chemical process of ammonia stripping. Ammonia stripping process involves the following steps:
Raising the wastewater pH to convert the ammonium ion into ammonia The ammonia can then be stripped from the water by passing large quantities of air through the water.

The rate of ammonia transfer is enhanced by converting most of the ammonia to a gaseous form at a high pH.
229

 Usually in the range of 10.5 to 11.5

The ammonia stripping reaction is expressed as: NH4 + OH NH3 + H2O

The hydroxide (high pH) is usually provided by adding lime.

The lime will also react with CO2 in the air and water
Thus calcium carbonate scale is formed and this must be removed periodically.
230

Disadvantages of Ammonia Stripping

Ammonia stripping is simple in concept
But is has disadvantages that make it expensive to operate and maintain.

The disadvantages are:

It is temperature sensitive
Ammonia solubility increases with lower temperature Fogging and icing occur in cold climate

Pollution sensitive
Ammonia reaction with sulphur dioxide may cause air pollution problems.

Maintenance & Operation Problems

It usually requires lime for pH control, this will increase treatment cost and cause lime-related operating and maintenance problems.
231

Removal of Toxic Compounds

Various methods are used for the treatment of toxic compounds. The nature of toxicity is complex
The specific characteristics of the wastewater and the nature of compound must be considered in the application of treatment methods.

The various treatment processes for toxic compounds removal are reviewed as follows:
Activated-carbon adsorption process
To remove natural and synthetic organic compounds including VOCs pesticides, heavy metals.
232

 Conventional biological treatment process (activated sludge, trickling filter).

To remove phenols and selected hydrogenated hydrocarbons

Air stripping
To remove ammonia and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

Chemical coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration

To remove heavy metals

Activated sludge powdered activated carbon

To remove heavy metals, ammonia and selected refractory priority pollutants.
233

7.0 SLUDGE TREATMENT & DISPOSAL

Sludge Sources & Characteristics
Sludge Problem Primary of Raw Sludge and Scum Secondary Sludge and Scum Sludge from Chemical Precipitation Activated Sludge Tertiary Sludge

Sludge Treatment Processes

Thickening (Concentration) Stabilization Conditioning Dewatering Reduction
234

Sludge Disposal

Sludge Problem
In the process of treating wastewater to remove impurities, another problem is created : sludge.
In fact, the higher the degree of wastewater treatment, the larger is the residue of sludge that must be handled. The exceptions of this rule are where land applications or polishing lagoons are used.

The objective of processing sludge is to

Extract water from the solids and Dispose of the dewatered residue.

Satisfactory treatment and disposal of the sludge is a very complex and costly operation in municipal wastewater treatment system.
235

Primary or Raw Sludge and Scum

Quantities of sludge and scum depend upon the nature of the collection system. Sludge from the bottom of the primary clarifiers contains from 3 to 8 percent solids which is about 70 percent organic.
1 percent solid is about 1 g solid/100 mL sludge volume.

The sludge rapidly becomes anaerobic and is highly odoriferous.

236

 Sludge from primary settling tank is usually gray and slimy and
In most cases, it has an extremely offensive odour.

Primary sludge can be readily digested under suitable conditions of operation.

237

Secondary Sludge and Scum

The secondary sludge consists of
Microorganisms and inert materials that have been wasted from the secondary treatment processes.

The solids are about 90 percent organic. This sludge becomes anaerobic when the supply of air is removed.
They create noxious conditions if not treated before disposal.

The solids content depends on the source.

Wasted activated sludge is typically 0.5 to 2 percent solids. Trickling filter sludge contains 2 to 5 percent solids.
238

Sludge from Chemical Precipitation

Sludge form chemical precipitation with metal salts is usually dark in colour.
The surface may be red if it contains much iron.

Lime sludge is grayish brown. The ordour of chemical sludge may be objectionable
It is not as bad as primary sludge.

If the sludge is left in the tank, it undergoes decomposition similar to primary sludge.
But at a slower rate.
239

 Substantial quantities of gas may be given off and

The sludge density is increased by long residence times in storage.

240

Activated Sludge
Activated sludge generally has a brownish, flocculent appearance.
Dark colour means that the sludge may be approaching a septic conditions.

A lighter colour than usual, indicates that underaeration may have been occurred with a tendency for the solids to settle slowly. The sludge tends to become septic rapidly and
Giving a disagreeable odour putrefaction.

Activated sludge will digest readily aline or when mixed with primary sludge.

241

Tertiary Sludges
The characteristics of sludges form the tertiary treatment processes depend on the nature of the process. For example:
Phosphorus removal produces a chemical sludge that is difficult to handle and treat.

When phosphorus removal occurs in the activated sludge process, the chemical sludge is combined with the biological sludge,
Making the biological sludge more difficult to treat.
242

 Nitrogen removal by denitrification produces a biological sludge with properties very similar to those of waste activated sludge.

243

Sludge Treatment Processes

The basic processes for sludge treatment are as follows:
Thickening (Concentration)
To separate as much as possible by gravity or flotation.

Stabilization
To convert the organic solids to more refractory (inert) forms. The inert forms can be handled or used as oil conditioners without causing a nuisance or health hazard through processes referred to as digestion. These are biochemical oxidation processes.

Conditioning
The sludge is treated with chemicals or heat so that that water can be readily separated.

244

 Dewatering
Water is separated from sludge by vacuum, pressure or drying.

Reduction
Solids are converted to a stable form by
Wet oxidation or Incineration

These are chemical oxidation processes, the volume of sludge is decreased, hence the term reduction.

245

Thickening
Thickening is usually accomplished in one or two ways:
Flotation, the solids are floated to the top of the liquid, or Gravity thickening, the solids are allowed to settle to the bottom

The aim of the thickening is to remove as much water as possible before final dewatering or digestion of the sludge. The processes involved offer a low-cost means of reducing sludge volumes by a factor or two or more.

The costs of thickening are usually more than offset by the resulting savings in the size and cost of downstream sludge processing equipment.
246

 The volume reduction obtained by sludge thickening is useful to subsequent treatment processes of
Digestion Dewatering Drying and Combustion (incineration)

The costs of thickening process are usually more than offset by the benefits obtained from
The savings in the size and Cost of downstream sludge processing equipment.
247

Dissolved Air Flotation

These are three types of flotation thickening operation:
Dissolved air flotation Vacuum flotation, and Dispersed air flotation

Dissolved air flotation is the most extensively used operation for sludge thickening.
In dissolved air flotation, air is injected into the solution (sludge) at an elevated pressure of 275 to 550 kPa.
Under this pressure condition, a large quantity of air can be dissolved in the sludge.
248

 The sludge (solution) flows into an open tank (and is thus depressurized) where, at atmospheric pressure, the dissolved air is released as finely divided bubbles. The bubbles then carry the sludge to the surface. The sludge forms a layer at the top of the tank, This layer of sludge is removed by a skimming mechanism for further processing.

Flotation thickening is most effective on waste sludges form suspended - growth biological treatment processes such as:
The activated sludge process, or The suspended growth nitrification process.

The flotation process typically increases the solid contents of activated sludge form 0.5 1 percent to 3 6 percent. The activated sludge is difficult to thicken by gravity.
249

Gravity Thickening
Gravity thickening is a simple and inexpensive process
It has been used widely on primary sludges for many years.

Gravity thickening is essentially a sedimentation process

It is similar in design to a conventional sedimentation or settling tanks. Normally, a circular tank is used.

Sludge flows into a tank that is very similar in appearance to circular clarifiers used in primary and secondary sedimentation.
The solids are allowed to settle and compact to the bottom where a heavy-duty mechanism scrapes them to a hopper from which they are withdrawn for further processing.

250

 Gravity thickening is most effective on primary sludge

Provisions for dilution water and occasional chlorine addition are frequently included to improve process performance.

The current trend is toward applying

Gravity thickening for primary sludges Flotation thickening for activated sludges, and then Blending the thickened sludges for further processing

251

Stabilization of Sludge
The main purposes of sludge stabilization are:
To break down the organic solids biochemically so that they are more stable (less odorous and less putrescible), More dewaterable and To reduce the mass of sludge.

Stabilization is not used if sludge is to be dewatered and burned. The two basic stabilization processes are:
Anaerobic digestion in which the stabilization is carried out in closed tank devoid of oxygen. Aerobic digestion in which air is injected into the sludge to accomplish the process of aerobic digestion.
252

Chemical Conditioning
A commonly used method for dewatering
Is the addition of chemical coagulants such as
Ferric chloride Lime, or Organic polymers Ash from incinerated sludge is also used as a conditioning agent.

Coagulate : to change from fluid to more or less solid state. When chemical coagulants are added to the turbid, the result is
The coagulation of the solids and Release of the absorbed water because the coagulated solids are more easily separated from the water.
253

 The conditioning chemicals are injected into the sludge just before the dewatering process and are mixed with the sludge. Chemical conditioning can reduce the 90 to 99 percent incoming sludge moisture (tubid water) to 65 to 85 percent, depending on the nature of the solids to be treated.

254

Heat Treatment Conditioning

Heat treatment is both a stabilization and a conditioning process.
It involves heating the sludge for short periods of time and under pressure.

Sludge is heated at:

High temperature, 175 to 230 Pressure at 1000 to 2000 kPa

Under these conditions (similar to the conditions of a pressure cooker):

The sludge is sterilized and dewatered readily.
255

 Heat treatment produces a sludge that dewaters better than chemically conditioned sludge. It is most applicable to biological sludges that may be difficult to stabilize or condition by other means. Disadvantages of heat treatment process are:
Relatively complex operation and maintenance, close supervision and skilled operators. Creation of highly polluted cooking liquors, high concentration of organics, ammonia nitrogen and colour.

256

 The high capital costs of equipment generally limit its use to

Large plants (more than 5 Mgal/d or 0.2m/s) or Facilities where space may be limited.

Because of these disadvantages, few new heat treatment facilities are used in U.S.

257

Sludge Dewatering
Sludge drying beds are used for sludge dewatering. Operational procedures are as follows:
Pump stabilized liquid onto the drying bed surface. Add chemical conditioners continuously. When the bed is filled to the desired level, the sludge is allowed to dry to the desired final solids concentration. Remove the dewatered sludge, mechanically or manually. Repeat the cycle.

Sand drying beds are the most commonly used type of drying bed.
258

Reasons for Dewatering

Dewatering of sludge is carried out for one or more of the following reasons:
Lower the costs for trucking sludge to the ultimate disposal by reducing the sludge volume by dewatering. Easier to handle the dewatered sludge than thickened or liquid sludge. Sludge is dewatered prior to the incineration. Dewatering of sludge is required prior to landfilling.

259

Sludge Disposal
The majority of wastewater sludges is disposed of on land.
Approximately three quarters are used as soil conditioners and The remainder burned as landfill.

Other methods include:

Incineration and Discharge in the sea.

Land application is increasing due to the following reasons:

Rising cost of energy required to burn sludge. The regulatory restriction on ocean disposal.
260

8.0 INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Inorganic in Industrial Wastes Pretreatment
Equalization Neutralization Greases & Oil Removal Toxic Substance

Industrial Wastewater Flowrate Typical Rates of Water Use for Various Industries Disposal of Wastewaters Waste Strength Reduction.
261

Inorganics In Industrial Wastes

There are two main sources of inorganics in industrial wastes
The direct source of inorganic compounds in the carriage water, for example, the soft-water sources contain lower inorganics than hard-water or saltwater sources. The indirect source of inorganics resulting from chemical additions during plant operations, for example, many food processing wastewater are high in sodium.

Normally, there is a balance in organics and inorganics in domestic wastewaters

Many industry process wastewater may be deficient in specific inorganic compound.
262

Nutrients Requirements
Biologically based wastewater treatment requires adequate nutrients such as nitrogen, phospherous, iron, and trace salts.
Nitrogen can be supplied by ammonium salts or nitrate salts. Phosphorous by phosphates Iron by ferrous and ferric salts, or even by normal steel corrosion.

When industrial waste are deficient in nitrogen and phosphorous,

These nutrients must be added if biological treatment is to be used.
263

 Some industrial wastewaters may contain very high levels of these nutrients,
For example, high level of nitrogen is found in paint-production wastes and High level of phosphorous in detergent production wastes.

These nutrients may cause eutrophication problems

And treatment for removal of these nutrients is required.

264

On industrial Wastewater Treatment Design

Industrial process water, wash waters, and cooling waters are subject to discharge restrictions
Similar to those applied to municipal wastes.

Industrial wastewater contains a variety of pollutants in soluble, colloidal, and particulate forms,
Both organic and inorganics

There are no standard design for industrial waterpollution control

The required effluent standards are diverse, varying with the industrial and pollutant class.
265

 It depends on the particular processes and/or products and the size of the manufacturing plant.

Each site requires a customised design to achieve optimum performance.

266

Importance of Laboratory & Pilot Tests

Industrial liquid waste are similar to wastewater but
Differ in significant ways

Although much of the experience and information has been gained from municipal wastewater treatment plants
Industrial wastewater treatment operations should not blindly follow the typical design parameters and standards developed for municipal wastewater treatment plants.

Laboratory and small pilot tests should be conducted with the specific industrial wastewater as part of the design process.
267

 For an industrial wastewater treatment operation to perform well, it is essential that one should understand
The temporal variations in industrial wastewater strength, flow, and waste components and Their effect on the performance of various treatment processes.

Very often in our effort to reduce cost, we tend to forget the importance of laboratory and pilot studies and
Depends on waste characteristics from similar plants This strategy may result in failure, delay, and increased costs.

268

Plant Survey
Industrial waste treatment should include procedures such as
Plant surveys Process changes Housekeeping improvements, Pretreatment and Finally, treatment either in a separate industrial plant or jointly with the municipality.

Plant survey is carried out to determine individual waste sources and strengths.
269

 Process changes may be required to reduce waste flow and/or strength. Housekeeping improvements and pretreatment are carried out to meet sewer discharge or other standards.

270

Pretreatment
Pretreatment should be considered for industrial discharge that have strengths or characteristics differing significantly from domestic wastewater. The following wastes should be excluded from the municipal sewers:
Wastes which create a fire or explosion, e.g., gasoline or cleaning solvents. Waste which impair hydraulic capacity, e.g., paunch manure or sand, and Waste which create a hazard to people, the sewer system, of the biological treatment system, e.g., toxic metal ions or hazardous oroganic wastes.
271

 Pretreatment processes include:

Equalization Neutralization Grease and Oil Removal Toxic Substance

272

Equalization
Industries using a diversity of processes may be required to equalize wastes by holding them in a basin for a certain period of time.
To obtain a stable effluent easier to treat in a municipal plant

Equalization is one of the most important pretreatment operation units

The batch discharge of concentrated waste is best suited for equalization. It may be important to equalize wastewater flow, wastewater concentration or both.

273

Neutralization
Neutralization of alkaline and acid waste streams, stabilization of BOD, and settling of heavy metals are some objectives of equalization.

Acidic or basic wastewater must be neutralized prior to discharge

Sulphuric acid is the primary acid used to neutralize high-pH wastewaters unless calcium sulphate might be precipitated as a result of neutralization reaction. Hydrocholoric acid can be used, if sulphuric acid is not acceptable For very weak wastewaters carbon dioxide can be adequate for neutralization.
274

 Equalization basins can be used as neutralization basins When separate chemical neutralization is required, sodium hydroxide is the easiest base material to handle in a liquid form
And can be used at various concentration for in-line neutralization with a minimum of equipment.

Limestone is used when reaction rates are slow and considerable times is available for reaction.

275

EXAMPLE OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES & TREATMENT PROCESSES

Source Food Industries
Soft Drinks

Characteristics
High BOD and Solids

Treatment
Screening, Biological Treatment Lagoons Biological Treatment Biological Treatment Recovery, Animal Feed.

Breweries

High Nitrogen and Carbohydrates

Chemical Industries
Detergents Acids High BOD & Phosphates Flotation, Precipitation Low pH, Low Organics Neutralization

Other Industries
Textiles Rubber High pH, and BOD, High Neutralization, Precipitation, Solids Biological Treatment High BOD and Solids, Biological Treatment Odour 276

Grease & Oil Removal

Grease and oil are hydrophobic (not readily wettable).
They tend to form insoluble layers with water

They can be easily separated form the water phase by gravity and simple skimming, if they are not too well mixed with the water prior to separation. The oils and greases tend to form emulsions with water as a result of turbulent mixing.
It is difficult to break the emulsions.

277

 Separation of oil and grease should be carried out near the point of their mixing with water
It can be carried out by flotation; Air bubbles can be added to the oil and grease mixtures in the flotation process. Addition of chemicals will help to break the emulsion.

The petroleum industries use American Petroleum Institute (API) separators extensively to remove oils form wastewaters. Grease traps are used by the food industries to collect the grease prior to its discharge.
278

Toxic Substances
Toxic substances have received very little attention in the past
New they pose the greatest to industries.

In the USA it is illegal for industries to discharge toxic substances in wastewaters.

It becomes the responsibility of each industry to determine whether any of its wastewater components are toxic to the environment The toxic materials have to be removed prior to the wastewater discharge.

A number of priority pollutants have been identified by the EPA

These priority pollutants must be removed.

279

 Toxic organics can be ultimately destroyed by various chemical oxidation systems. Incineration appears to be the most economical method for destroying toxic organics when they are treated in their concentrated form.

280

Heavy Metals
Recently, major emphasis has been placed on
Heavy metals and on complex organics that have been implicated in possible cancer production.

It is essential to use pretreatment to reduce heavy metals below toxic levels

And to prevent discharge of any toxic organics.

If the heavy metals cannot be reused,

They must be concentrated and placed into insoluble materials which will not leach the metals.

281

Remarks on Equalization
Textile mill wastes discharged to a municipal plant must be equalized to prevent fluctuations in pH and BOD.
Fluctuations in pH and BOD will upset the efficiency of a biological treatment system.

Unequalized wastewaters high in alkalinity or acidity commonly required neutralization by chemical addition to prevent upsetting the system.

282

Waste Strength Reduction

Pretreatment is carried out on certain industrial wastes
To reduce the organic or inorganic solids prior to disposal in a municipal plant

Some of the examples are listed as follows

Textile or Tannery Wastes
Equalization and sedimentation may be required to reduce the settleable solids.

Metal-planting Wastes
They may contain zine, copper, cyanide and other heavy metals Treatment in addition to equalization may be required if the toxic ions are not sufficiently diluted with domestic wastewater. They are commonly treated by chemical oxidation or coagulation for removal of these inorganic pollutants.
283

 Diary Wastes from a bottling plant, a creamery (butter factory) or cheese factory may require
Pretreatment by aeration to prevent acidic, malodorous influent wastewater.

Refractory pollutants
Waste stream with high concentrations of refractory pollutants (i.e. salt or ammonia nitrogen) must be regulated at the plant site if the municipal wastedisposed system does not have sufficient assimilative capacity.

Whole milk has a BOD of approximately 100,000 mg/L, and whey a BOD of 35,000 mg/L
Reduction in drippage and spillage and by-product recovery in milk processing can reduce the strength of dairy waste significantly.

284

Standard A and Standard B

The two most important parameter measured are BOD and SS. Standard A and standard B are set by the Environmental Quality Art (1974).
BOD
Standard A: Standard B: 20mg/L 50mg/L

SS
50mg/L 100 mg/L

285

 If the effluent is discharged upstream of a water supply intake it should meet Standard A. If for effluent that is discharged downstream, it should meet Standard B.

286

287