Chapter 2

Conduction Heat
Transfer

Heat Transfer, BME

III/I
Course
outline
✔ General Differential equation of Conduction
✔ Fourier Law of Conduction
✔ Cartesian and Cylindrical coordinates
✔ Conduction through Plane Wall, Cylinders and Spherical
systems
✔ One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction
✔ Composite Systems
✔ Conduction with Internal Heat Generation
✔ Two Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction
✔ Unsteady Heat Conduction
• Lumped Analysis
• Use of Heislers Chart
2
 INTRODUCTION
• Although heat transfer and temperature are closely related, they are of a different nature.
• Temperature has only magnitude. It is a scalar quantity.
• Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude. It is a vector quantity.
• We work with a coordinate system and indicate direction with plus or minus signs.

3
Steady versus Transient Heat
Transfer
• Steady implies no change with time at
any point within the medium
• Transient implies variation with time or
time dependence
• In the special case of variation with time
but not with position, the temperature of
the medium changes uniformly
time. Such heat with
transfer systems called lumped are
systems.

4
An element of having the dimensions δx, δy, δz at a distance x, y, z as shown in
Figure is considered for the derivation of the general heat conduction equation. In
general analysis, the thermal conductivity at x, y, and z direction will be considered as
dependent upon the orientation of the surface. Thus KX, KY, and KZ are the directional
characteristics of the material. If these three values are equal, the material is called
isotropic, if unequal anisotropic, as example - wood.

5
Considering unit area through heat is flowing along X-axis in time
δt

and

Heat stored in time δt per unit area due conduction of heat along X-
axis,

As the area of heat flow along X-direction is δy. δz so that total heat stored in time
δt

6
Similarly the heat stored due to the heat flow by conduction along Y and Z
directions in time δt are

and

If the body is generating heat and q is the heat generation rate per unit volume of the
material per unit time then the heat generated in the body in time δt

7
The total heat which is stored in the body will be utilized for increasing the
temperature of the body and it can be calculated by using the equation as follows

Heat stored in the body in time

δt = (Mass of × specific heat of the
the body) body material ×
rise in temperature
= (ρ.δx.δy.δz)CP.δT

8
This is the conduction equation for non-homogeneous material; self heat generating
and unsteady state three dimensional heat flow.

For an isotropic material,

K X = KY = K Z = K

9
1. GENERAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF CONDUCTION
The Fourier Equation mentioned earlier represents the fundamental heat conduction law for
unidirectional flow of heat.

In general, however, temperature variations will exist throughout the body. Heat will also flow
in other directions of the body, because there may be nothing present in the body to prevent the
same.
It is, therefore, necessary that a general mathematical formulation be obtained with the help of
this equation, which would be applicable to heat flow in all the three directions.

Such a mathematical treatment can lead to an expression of temperature distribution as a

function of space coordinates and time.

Thus the heat flow at any particular location in any direction, at any instant, can be evaluated.
Further, a general three dimensional heat conduction equation can also be used for one or two
dimensional cases with suitable modifications.

1
If the heat flow is in steady state condition then controlling equation
becomes

If heat flow is in unsteady without heat generation the controlling equation

becomes

This equation is also known as Fourier equation.

If the heat flow is steady without heat generation the controlling equation
becomes

This equation is also known as Laplace Equation.

11
 2. FOURIER LAW OF CONDUCTION
• Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:
✔ one-dimensional
✔ two dimensional
✔ three-dimensional
• In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium is three-dimensional.
However, some problems can be classified as two- or one-dimensional depending
on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer rates in different directions and the level
of accuracy desired.
• One-dimensional if the temperature in the medium varies in one direction only and
thus heat is transferred in one direction, and the variation of temperature and thus
heat transfer in other directions are negligible or zero.
• Two-dimensional if the temperature in a medium, in some cases, varies mainly in
two primary directions, and the variation of temperature in the third direction (and
thus heat transfer in that direction) is negligible.
12
13
• The rate of heat conduction through a medium in a specified direction (say, in the
x-direction) is expressed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction for one-
dimensional heat conduction as:

Heat is conducted in the direction of

decreasing temperature, and thus the
temperature gradient is negative when
heat is conducted in the positive x -
direction.

14
• The heat flux vector at a point P on the
surface of the figure must be perpendicular
to the surface, and it must point in the
direction of decreasing temperature
• If n is the normal of the isothermal surface
at point P, the rate of heat conduction at
that point can be expressed by Fourier’s
law as

15
Heat Generation
• Examples:
✔ electrical energy being converted to heat at a rate of I2R,
✔ fuel elements of nuclear reactors,
✔ exothermic chemical reactions.
• Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
• The rate of heat generation units : W/m3 or Btu/h·ft3.
• The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary with time as well as
position within the medium.

16
3. CARTESIAN AND CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES
• The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the temperature difference.
• The larger the temperature difference, the larger the rate of heat transfer.
• Three prime coordinate systems:
✔ rectangular T(x, y, z, t)
✔ cylindrical T(r, φ, z, t)
✔ spherical T(r, φ, θ, t).

17
Conduction Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
Using the following relations between the
coordinates of a point in rectangular and cylindrical
coordinate systems:

Conduction Equation in Spherical Coordinates

Using the following relations between the
coordinates of a point in rectangular and
spherical coordinate systems:

18
4. CONDUCTION THROUGH PLANE WALL, CYLINDERS AND
SPHERICAL SYSTEMS
Consider heat conduction through a large plane wall such as the wall of a
house, the glass of a single pane window, the metal plate at the bottom of a
pressing iron, a cast-iron steam pipe, a cylindrical nuclear fuel element, an
electrical resistance wire, the wall of a spherical container, or a spherical
metal ball that is being quenched or tempered.
Heat conduction in these and many other geometries can be approximated as
being one-dimensional since heat conduction through these geometries is
dominant in one direction and negligible in other directions.
Next we develop the one dimensional heat conduction equation in
rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates.

19
I. CONDUCTION THROUGH PLANE WALL

(2-6)

20
21
II. CONDUCTION THROUGH CYLINDERS

22
23
III. CONDUCTION THROUGH SPHERICAL SYSTEMS

24
Combined One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation
An examination of the one-dimensional transient heat conduction equations for
the plane wall, cylinder, and sphere reveals that all three equations can be
expressed in a compact form as

n = 0 for a plane wall

n = 1 for a cylinder
n = 2 for a sphere
In the case of a plane wall, it is customary to replace the variable r by x.
This equation can be simplified for steady-state or no heat generation cases
as described before.

25
 BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITIONS
The description of a heat transfer problem in a medium is not complete without a full description of
the thermal conditions at the bounding surfaces of the medium.
Boundary conditions: The mathematical expressions of the thermal conditions at the boundaries.

The temperature at any point

on the wall at a specified time
depends on the condition of the
geometry at the beginning of
the heat conduction process.
Such a condition, which is
usually specified at time t = 0,
is called the initial
condition, which is a
mathematical expression for
the temperature distribution
of the medium initially.

26
II. Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
The heat flux in the positive x-direction anywhere in the medium, including the boundaries,
can be expressed by

For a plate of thickness L subjected to heat flux of

50 W/m2 into the medium from both sides, for
example, the specified heat flux boundary
conditions can be expressed as

27
I. Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
The temperature of an exposed surface can usually be
measured directly and easily.
Therefore, one of the easiest ways to specify the thermal
conditions on a surface is to specify the temperature.
For one-dimensional heat transfer through a plane wall of
thickness L, for example, the specified temperature
boundary conditions can be expressed as

where T1 and T2 are the specified temperatures at surfaces

at x = 0 and x = L, respectively.
The specified temperatures can be constant, which is the
case for steady heat conduction, or may vary with time.
28
5. ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION
One dimensional steady state heat conduction includes heat flow through a wall or
along an insulated rod.

For one dimensional, steady state heat conduction through a

solid with no heat generation

The particular solution to the equation will give the value of the temperature
T which will represent the temperature field of the system.

29
Integrating the above Equation

Again integrating the above Equation

The values of C1 and C2 can be obtained by imposing

initial and boundary conditions of the system, shown
in Figure.

Substituting the boundary conditions,

30
Substituting the values of these constants

Then heat flow can be determined as

We have

31
Steady State Radial Heat Conduction through Tubes
The case of conduction of heat through the walls of hollow cylinders or tubes are
usually encountered in heat exchangers, can be conveniently treated in cylindrical
coordinates instead of Cartesian coordinates.

Let us assume the cylinder to be of infinite length and

the flow to be only in radial direction.

Integrating the above equation

32
Integrating further we have,

Now applying the boundary conditions

Subtracting the second equation from first we get

Substituting C1 into the first equation, we get

33
Substituting the values of C1 and C2,

Heat flow under steady condition

34
35
Steady State Radial Heat Conduction through a Spherical Shell

The mathematical formulation of this problem can be expressed as

with boundary conditions

Integrating the differential equation once with respect to r yields

where C1 is an arbitrary constant. We now divide both sides of this equation by r 2 to bring it
to a readily integral form,

37
Again integrating with respect to r gives

We now apply both boundary conditions

Solving them simultaneously gives

The variation of temperature within the spherical shell is determined to

be

38
The rate of heat loss from the container is simply the total rate of heat conduction
through the container wall and is determined from Fourier’s law

39
SOLUTION OF STEADY ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION PROBLEMS

In this section we will solve a of heat conduction

problems in rectangular geometries.
We will limit our attention to problems that result in
ordinary differential equations such as the steady one-
dimensional heat conduction problems. We will also
assume constant thermal conductivity.
The solution procedure for solving heat conduction
problems can be summarized as
(1)formulate the problem by obtaining the applicable
differential equation in its simplest form and specifying
the boundary conditions,
(2)Obtain the general solution of the differential
equation, and
(3)apply the boundary conditions and determine the
arbitrary constants in the general solution.
40
41
42
43
VARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, k(T)

When the variation of thermal conductivity with

temperature in a specified temperature interval is large, it
may be necessary to account for this variation to
minimize the error.
When the variation of thermal conductivity with
temperature k(T) is known, the average value of the
thermal conductivity in the temperature range between T1
and T2 can be determined from

48
The variation in thermal conductivity of a material with
temperature in the temperature range of interest can often be
approximated as a linear function and expressed as

β temperature coefficient of
thermal conductivity.
The average value of thermal conductivity in the temperature
range T1 to T2 in this case can be determined from

The average thermal conductivity in this case is equal to

the thermal conductivity value at the average temperature.

49
 6. COMPOSITE SYSTEMS
Different arrangements of different materials designed for a particular application is called
a composite structure.

Composite Plane Wall

For steady state heat transfer, heat flowing through

each layer should be same, i.e.;

50
Rearranging the above equations for the temperature
differences,

Adding above equations, we get

Rearranging the above Equation, we get an expression for conduction heat transfer through
a composite plane wall as,

51
Composite Hollow Cylinder

For steady state heat transfer, heat flowing through

each layer should be same, i.e.;

Rearranging the above

equations for the temperature
differences,
52
Adding above equations

Rearranging the above Equation, we get an expression for conduction heat transfer through
a composite cylinder as,

53
Composite Hollow Sphere

For steady state heat transfer, heat flowing through

each layer should be same, i.e.;

Rearranging the above equations for the temperature

differences,

54
Adding above equations

Rearranging the above Equation, we get an expression for conduction heat transfer through
a composite cylinder as,

55
Electric Analogy for Heat Transfer and Thermal Resistance

We can express heat transfer equation as

which shows that heat (Q) flows due to the difference

in temperature (ΔT) and the property of the
substance by virtue of which it opposes the flow of
heat through it is called the thermal resistance (Rth).

Thermal Resistance of a Plane Wall

56
Thermal Resistance of a Hollow Cylinder

Thermal Resistance of a Hollow Sphere

Thermal Resistance of a Convective

Layer

57
Heat Transfer through a Composite Plane Wall Using
Electric Analogy Approach
In this case same amount of heat flows through each
layer; hence all thermal resistances are arranged in series.
Whenever heat flows through a thermal resistance, there
will a temperature drop (analogous to voltage drop in
case of electric circuit).
Thermal resistances for each layers of the plane
wall are given as

Equivalent thermal resistance is then given as

Then overall heat transfer for a composite plane wall is given

by

58
Heat Transfer through a Composite Cylinder
Using Electric Analogy Approach

59
Heat Transfer through a Composite Sphere Using
Electric Analogy Approach

60
Application of Electric Analogy Approach

61
 Newton’s law of cooling

Convection resistance of the surface: Thermal

resistance of the surface against heat convection. Schematic for convection resistance at
a surface.
When the convection heat transfer coefficient is very large (h → ∞), the convection
resistance becomes zero and Ts ≈ T.
That is, the surface offers no resistance to convection, and thus it does not slow down the
heat transfer process.
This situation is approached in practice at surfaces where boiling and condensation occur.
62
Overall heat transfer
coefficient
Temperature drop

U overall heat transfer

coefficient

Once Q is evaluated,
the surface temperature
T1 can be determined from

The temperature drop across a layer

is proportional to its thermal
63
Combined Heat Transfer and Overall Heat
Transfer Coefficient

In real case, all modes of heat transfer will present,

whenever there exists a temperature difference.
Among these modes, we will consider the problems
involving conduction and convection only.
Plane Wall Subjected to Convective Medium on
both Sides
For steady state heat transfer, heat flowing
through each layer should be same, i.e.;

64
 Rearranging the above equations for
the temperature differences,

Adding above equations, we get

Rearranging the above Equation, we get an

expression for combined heat transfer through a composite
plane wall as,

Above equation can also be expressed in simpler form as

where is called overall heat transfer coefficient

65
Hollow Cylinder Subjected to Convective
Medium on both Sides
For steady state heat transfer, heat flowing
through each layer should be same, i.e.;

Rearranging the above equations

for the temperature differences,

Adding above equations, we get

66
Rearranging the above Equation, we get an expression for combined heat transfer
through a hollow cylinder as,

which can also be expressed as

or

Above equations can also be expressed in the simpler form as

or
where,
and

are called inside overall heat transfer coefficient and

outside overall heat transfer coefficient respectively.
Substituting A1 = 2πr1L and A2 = 2πr2L

and
67
Hollow Sphere Subjected to Convective
Medium on both Sides
For steady state heat transfer,
heat flowing through each layer
should be same, i.e.;

Rearranging the above equations for the temperature

differences,

Adding above equations, we get

68
Rearranging the above Equation, we get an expression for combined heat transfer
through a hollow sphere as,

Above equations can also be expressed in the simpler form as

or

where, and

are called inside overall heat transfer coefficient and outside overall heat transfer coefficient
respectively.
Substituting A1 = 4πr1 2 and
2
A2 = 4πr2

and

Do yourself: Use electric analogy approach to derive overall heat transfer coefficients.
69
Thermal Contact Resistance
• When two such surfaces are pressed
against each other, the peaks form good
material contact but the valleys form
voids filled with air.
• These numerous air gaps of varying
sizes act as insulation because of the
low thermal conductivity of air.
• Thus, an interface offers some resistance
to heat transfer, and this resistance per
unit interface area is called the thermal
contact resistance, Rc.

Temperature distribution and heat flow lines along two solid plates
pressed against each other for the case of perfect and imperfect contact.

70
 The value of thermal contact resistance depends
on:
hc thermal contact • surface roughness,
conductance • material properties,
• temperature and pressure at the interface
• type of fluid trapped at the interface.
The thermal contact resistance can be
minimized by applying
• a thermal grease such as silicon oil
• a better conducting gas such as
helium or hydrogen
• a soft metallic foil such as tin, silver,
copper, nickel, or aluminum

Thermal contact resistance is significant and can even dominate the heat transfer for good
heat conductors such as metals, but can be disregarded for poor heat conductors such as
insulations.
71
Critical Radius of Insulation
Adding more insulation to a wall or to the attic
always decreases heat transfer since the heat
transfer area is constant, and adding insulation
always increases the thermal resistance of the
wall without increasing the convection
resistance.
In a a cylindrical pipe or a spherical shell, the
additional insulation increases the conduction
resistance of the insulation layer but decreases
the convection resistance of the surface because An insulated cylindrical pipe exposed to
of the increase in the outer surface area for convection from the outer surface and the
convection. thermal resistance network associated with it.
The heat transfer from the pipe may increase or
decrease, depending on which effect dominates.

72
The critical radius of insulation for a cylindrical body
can be obtained by differentiating R total (= Rins + Rconv.)
by r2 and is given by:

Similarly, the critical radius of insulation for a

spherical shell is given by

The largest value of the critical radius we are

likely to encounter is

We can insulate hot-water or steam pipes The variation of heat transfer rate with the
freely without worrying about the outer radius of the insulation r2 when r1 < rcr.
possibility of increasing the heat transfer by
insulating the pipes.
68
7. CONDUTION WITH INTERNAL HEAT GENERATION
Many practical heat transfer applications involve the
conversion of some form of energy into thermal energy in the
medium.
Such mediums are said to involve internal heat generation,
which manifests itself as a rise in temperature throughout the
medium.
Some examples of heat generation are
- resistance heating in wires,
- exothermic chemical reactions in a solid, and
- nuclear reactions in nuclear fuel rods
where electrical, chemical, and nuclear energies are converted
to heat, respectively.
Heat generation in an electrical wire of outer radius ro and
length L can be expressed as
74
I. HEAT GENERATION IN PLANE WALL
Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a plane wall of constant k, uniform
generation, and asymmetric surface conditions
•
The heat equation in given by •
d ⎛⎜ k ⎟dT ⎞ + q = 0d+T
2
2
=0
dx ⎝ → dx dx k
q
The general solution is given by
⎠ •
⎞
Boundary conditions T ( x) = − ⎝⎛⎜ q/ 2k ⎟ x1 2

+ ⎠C x + C
At x = (- L), T(x) = TS,1
At x = (L), T(x) = TS,2 2

75
The preceding result simplifies when both
surfaces are maintained at a common
temperature distribution
TS,1
is=then
TS,2symmetrical
= TS . The about the mid
plane. The equation reduces to •
q L2 ⎛ x2 ⎞
1 − +s
T ( x) = 2k ⎝⎜ L 2 ⎟
T
We can determine TS using overall energy balance on the wall
• •
⎠
−E out
+E
g =0 •

−hA (T − T ∞ )+q A L = 0
s
s •
s
+ qL
Ts ∞
h
= Tat the mid plane, and is given
The maximum temperature exists
by
In which case the temperature distribution equation can be
expressed as which can be obtained by subtracting T(0) from
T(x). 71
II. HEAT GENERATION IN CYLINDER
Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a large cylinder of constant k, uniform
generation, and asymmetric surface conditions

The heat equation in given by

The general solution is given by

On solving the general solution we get,

77
We can determine Ts using overall energy balance on the cylinder
• •

−E out
+E =
g
0

The maximum temperature exists at the mid plane, and is given

by

In which case the temperature distribution equation can be

expressed as which can be obtained by subtracting T(0) from
T(r).

78
III. HEAT GENERATION IN SPHERE
Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a Sphere of constant k, uniform generation,
and asymmetric surface conditions

The heat equation in given by ∙

1 d dT ⎞ + q=0 Solid Sphere
r 2 dr ⎜⎝ dr ⎟⎠
The general solution is given by •
qr2 C
T = ⎛− 2
kr 6k − +C 2
1

On solving the general solution we get, r

•

dT | qr 2

dr
r =0 = 0 → C1 = 0
T
( o
r ) =s2 T → C o
s
=T+ 6k
The temperature distribution is therefore •
qr 2 ⎛ r2
⎞
T (r ) = 6k ⎝ o +T
s
r 2 o⎟

⎠ 79
We can determine Ts using overall energy balance on the cylinder
• •

−E out
+E =
g
0

The maximum temperature exists at the mid plane, and is given

by

80
8. TWO DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION
Many heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be approximated as being one-
dimensional, but this is not always the case. Sometimes we need to consider heat transfer in other
directions as well when the variation of temperature in other directions is significant.

For steady state two dimensional heat conduction, the Laplace equation applies

………. (1)

The solution to this equation may be obtained by analytical, graphical or numerical techniques.

Then the heat flow in the x and y directions may be calculated

from the Fourier Equations

………. (2)

………. (3)
81
Analytical Method for Two-Dimensional Steady State Heat
Conduction

To solve Equation (1), the separation of variables method is

used. The essential point of this method is that the solution of
the differential equation is assumed to take a product form
………. (4)

The boundary conditions are then applied to determine the

form of functions X and Y. The basic assumption as given by
Equation (4) can be justified only if it is possible to find a
solution of this form which satisfies the boundary conditions.
First consider the boundary conditions with a sine wave temperature distribution impressed on the
upper edge of the plate. Thus

………. (5)

82
Substituting Equation (4) in Equation (1) gives

………. (6)

Rearranging the above equation,

………. (7)

Observe that each side of Equation (7) is independent of the other because x and y are independent
variables. This requires that each side be equal to some constant. Let this constant be λ2.

………. (8)

where λ2 is called the separation constant. Its value must be determined from the boundary
conditions.
83
We may thus obtain two ordinary differential equations in terms of this constant,
………. (9)

………. (10)

The general solutions of the Equations (9) and (10) are given as

………. (11)
………. (12)

The general solution for T is given as

………. (13)

The application of boundary conditions will be easier to handle when the substitution θ = T –
T1 is made. The differential equation and the solution then retain the same form in the new
variable θ
………. (14)

84
Then, we need only transform the boundary conditions. Thus

………. (15)

Applying these conditions, we have

………. (16)

………. (17)

………. (18)

………. (19)

From Equation (16), ………. (20)

………. (21)
From Equation (17),

85
Substituting Equations (20) and (21) in Equation (18),
………. (22)

Equation (22) requires that

………. (23)

Several values will satisfy Equation (23), and these may be written as

………. (24)

The solution to the differential equation may thus be written as the sum of the solutions for
each values of n. This is an infinite sum so that the final solution is the infinite series

………. (25)

where the constants have been combined and the exponential terms are converted to the
hyperbolic function.
81
The final boundary condition given by Equation (19) may now be applied

………. (26)

which requires that Cn = 0 for n > 1. The final solution is therefore

………. (27)

We now consider the set of boundary conditions, i.e.,

………. (28)

Using the first three boundary conditions, we obtain the solution in the form,

………. (29)

87
Constant Cn can be evaluated by writing an infinite series expansion in terms of orthogonal
functions. For this multiplying Equation (30) by and integrating for 0 ≤ x ≤ W,

………. (31)

Rearranging Equation (31) for the coefficients Cn,

…… . (32)

Substituting Cn into Equation (29), we get the solution for temperature profile as

………. (33)

88
9. UNSTEADY HEAT CONDUCTION

The temperature of a body, in general, varies with time as well as position.

Under steady conditions, the temperature of a body at any point does not change with
time. This certainly simplified the analysis, especially when the temperature varied in
one direction only, and we were able to obtain analytical solutions.

Under unsteady conditions, we consider the variation of temperature with time as well
as position in one and multi-dimensional systems.

We start this chapter with the analysis of lumped systems in which the temperature of a
solid varies with time but remains uniform throughout the solid at any time. Then we
consider the variation of temperature with time as well as position for one dimensional
heat conduction problems such as those associated with a large plane wall, a long
cylinder, a sphere and a semi-infinite medium using transient temperature charts and
analytical solutions.

89
9.1 LUMPED SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Interior temperature of some bodies remains

essentially uniform at all times during a heat
transfer process.
The temperature of such bodies can be taken
to be a function of time only, T(t).
Heat transfer analysis that utilizes this
idealization is known as lumped system
analysis.

A small copper ball can be modeled as

a lumped system, but a roast beef
cannot. 90
Integrating with
T = Ti at t = 0 The geometry and parameters
T = T(t) at t = t involved in the lumped system
analysis.

time constant

91
 • This equation enables us to determine the
temperature T(t) of a body at time t, or
alternatively, the time t required for the
temperature to reach a specified value T(t).
• The temperature of a body approaches the
ambient temperature T∞ exponentially.
• The temperature of the body changes
rapidly at the beginning, but rather slowly
later on. A large value of b indicates that
the body approaches the environment
temperature in a short time

The temperature of a lumped system

approaches the environment
temperature as time gets larger.
92
 The rate of convection heat transfer between
the body and its environment at time t

The total amount of heat transfer between

the body and the surrounding medium over
the time interval t = 0 to t
The maximum heat transfer between the
body and its surroundings

Heat transfer to or from a body

reaches its maximum value when
the body reaches the environment
temperature.
93
Criteria for Lumped System Analysis

Characteristic length

Biot number

Lumped system analysis is applicable

if

When Bi ≤ 0.1, the temperatures within the

body relative to the surroundings (i.e., T −T∞)
remain within 5 percent of each other

94
 Analogy between heat
transfer to a solid and
passenger traffic to
Small bodies with high thermal an island.
conductivities and low
convection coefficients are
most likely to satisfy the When the convection coefficient h is high and k is
criterion for lumped system low, large temperature differences occur between the
analysis. inner and outer regions of a large solid.

95
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION IN LARGE PLANE WALLS, LONG
CYLINDERS, AND SPHERES WITH SPATIAL EFFECTS

We will consider the variation of temperature with time and

position in one-dimensional problems such as those associated
with a large plane wall, a long cylinder, and a sphere.

Transient temperature profiles in

a plane wall exposed to
convection from its surfaces for Ti >T∞.

Schematic of the simple

geometries in which heat
transfer is one-dimensional.
96
Non-dimensionalized One-Dimensional Transient Conduction Problem

97
Non-dimensionalization reduces the number of independent
variables in one-dimensional transient conduction problems
from 8 to 3, offering great convenience in the presentation of
results.

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Approximate Analytical and Graphical
Solutions
The terms in the series solutions converge rapidly with increasing time, and for τ >
0.2, keeping the first term and neglecting all the remaining terms in the series results
in an error under 2 percent.
Solution with one-term approximation

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 9.2 USE OF HEISLER CHARTS
Once the Bi number is known, the above relations can be used to determine the temperature
anywhere in the medium. The determination of the constants A1 and λ1 usually requires
interpolation.

For those who prefer reading charts to interpolating, the relations above are plotted and the one-
term approximation solutions are presented in graphical form., known as the transient temperature
charts. Note that the charts are sometimes difficult to read, and they are subject to reading errors.
Therefore, the relations above should be preferred to the charts.

The transient temperature charts were presented by M. P. Heisler in 1947 for a large plane wall,
long cylinder and sphere and are called Heisler charts. They were supplemented in 1961 with
transient heat transfer charts by H. Grober.

There were three charts associated with each geometry: the first chart is to determine the
temperature To at the center of the geometry at a given time t. The second chart is to determine the
temperature at other locations at the same time in terms of To. The third chart is to determine the
total amount of heat transfer up to the time t. these plots are valid for τ>0.2.

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 (a) Midplane temperature

Transient temperature and heat transfer charts (Heisler and Grober

charts) for a plane wall of thickness 2L initially at a uniform temperature Ti
subjected to convection from both sides to an environment at temperature
T∞ with a convection coefficient of h.
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(b) Temperature distribution

103
(c) Heat transfer

104
 The physical significance of the Fourier
number

• The Fourier number is a measure

of heat conducted through a body
relative to heat stored.
• A large value of the Fourier
number indicates faster
propagation of heat through a
body.

Fourier number at time t can be viewed

as the ratio of the rate of heat conducted
to the rate of heat stored at that time.
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