CHEN3005

PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

Australia Malaysia

Lecture Note 4
Control Loop Hardware

Prof. Moses Tadé (MOT)/Assoc. Prof. Jobrun

Nandong (JN) ©Saptoro, 2018
MOT/JN Revised
20/21/22/23
MOT/JN Revised 2024
Lecture Outline

 Basic components in a control system

 Pneumatic and electronic analog controllers
 Distributed Control System (DCS) and Fieldbus
Technology
 Sensor terminologies and types
 Valve types, characteristics and selection
 Summary

2
Learning outcomes

After this lecture, the students are expected be able:

 To understand different types of control hardware
 To gain knowledge about different types of signals
that are required to implement a typical feedback
control loop
 To be familiar with sensor and control valve
terminologies

3
 Typical feedback control loop

 Feedback control requires 4 basic components – controller,

actuator (or correcting device), process and sensor
 The correct sequence of the basic components is as shown
in the block diagram above

4
 Typical feedback control loop

Sensors with local indication for

Corrective device: control valve technicians working on process
equipment

Central control room

Transmission to central computer for displays, plot, history,

and calculations used for control of the controlled variable
5
Basic Components
 Sensors
• Including transmitters
• Transmitter types: (1) pneumatic, (2) electrical, (3) wireless
 Actuators
• Including transducers and boosters
• Transducer to convert electrical signals to pneumatic signals
• Booster (compressor) is used to operate a control valve
 Controllers (often computerised systems)
• Most common controllers are PID type – comprise about 90% of
industrial controllers (Yu, 1999*)
• Others: Model Predictive Control (MPC) and Adaptive Nonlinear
Control

*Yu CC. (1999) Introduction. In: Autotuning of PID 6

Controllers. Advances in Industrial Control. Springer, London
Control Diagram of a Typical Control Loop

 Can you identify the required control

hardware ?

Actuator
System
F1 F2

T1 T2

Sensor
System
Controller TC
T
TT
Electrical/
Pneumatic
Transmitter
7
Components and Signals of a Typical
Control Loop
Note: The transmitted signal ranges indicated are standard
everywhere around the world.

F1 F2

T1 T2

Thermowell
3-15 psig
T
Air 4-20 ma
I/P D/A Thermocouple
millivolt signal

Tsp DCS 4-20 ma

Operator
Control A/D Transmitter
Console
Computer

8
 Responsibilities of control engineers

1. Select the most suitable actuator type and

actuator size and understand its dynamics.
2. Select the most suitable sensor and understand its
dynamics.
3. Select the right form of a controller and to
properly tune or design the given controller.
4. Choose appropriate software for the computer
control system.

9
 Controllers/Control
Computers
• Pneumatic controllers
• Electronic analog controllers
• Supervisory control computers
• Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
• Fieldbus technology

10
 Pneumatic Controllers -
Phase I
• Introduced in the 1920’s
• Installed in the field next to the valve
• Use bellows, baffles, and nozzles with an air supply
to implement PID action
• Provided automatic control and replaced manual
control for many loops

11
 Pneumatic Controllers -
Phase II
• Transmitter type pneumatic controllers began to
replace field mounted controllers in the late 1930’s
• Controller located in control room with pneumatic
transmission from sensors to control room and
back to the valve
• Allowed operators to address a number of
controllers from a centralised control room

12
Pneumatic Controller Installation
 Pneumatic => air pressure to deliver signal from one
component to another.
 Pneumatic controller => uses analog or continuous
signal.

F1 F2

T1 T2
Thermowell
3-15 psig
T

Air Thermocouple
millivolt signal

T sp Air
Pneumatic 3-15 psig
Transmitter
Controller

13
 Electronic Analog
Controllers
• Became available in the late 1950’s
• Replaced the pneumatic tubing with wires
• Used resistors, capacitors, and transistors-based
amplifiers to implement PID action
• Out-sold pneumatic controllers by 1970
• Allowed for advanced PID control enhancement:
ratio, feedforward, etc.

14
 Electronic Controller Installation
 The electronic signal is continuous or analog.
 The signal ranges are standard worldwide.

F1 F2

T1 T2
Thermowell
3-15 psig
T
Air 4-20 ma
I/P Thermocouple
millivolt signal

T sp Electronic 4-20 ma
Analog Transmitter
Controller

15
 Computer Control System
• Based upon a mainframe digital computer
• Offered the ability to use data storage and
retrieval, alarm functions, and process
optimization
• First installed in a refinery in 1959
• Had reliability limitations

16
Supervisory Control Computer
Update
Video Display Alarming setpoints,
Printer controller
Unit Functions
tunings

Supervisory Control Computer

Analog Data Storage

Interfacing
Control Acquisition
Hardware
Subsytem System

...
17
 Distributed Control System-
DCS
• Introduced in the late 1970’s
• Based upon redundant microprocessors for
performing control functions for a part of the plant,
giving it SUPERIOR RELIABILITY
• Less expensive per loop for large plants
• Less expensive to expand
• Facilitates the use of advanced control

18
 DCS Architecture
Data
System Host
Storage PLC
Consoles Computer
Unit

Data Highway
(Shared Communication Facilities)

Local
Console
Local
Control .............. Local
Control
Local
Console
Unit Unit

Process Transmitters and Actuators

19
 Distributed Control System (DCS) Architecture
A distributed control system (DCS) is a computerised control system for a process or
plant usually with a large number of control loops, in which autonomous controllers
are distributed throughout the system, but there is a central operator supervisory
control.

20
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_control_system
 DCS and Troubleshooting

• The data storage and trending capability of a DCS

greatly facilitate troubleshooting control problems.
• The sources of process upsets can effectively be
tracked down through the process by trending a
group of process measurements until the source of
the process upset is located.

21
Control Relevant Aspects of a
DCS
• The most important control aspect of a DCS is the
cycle time for controller calls.
• The shortest cycle times are typically around 0.2
seconds while most loops can be executed every
0.5 to 1.0 seconds.
• These cycle times affect flow control loops and
other fast control loops.

22
 Fieldbus Technology
• Based upon smart valves, smart sensors and
controllers installed in the field
• Uses data highway to replace wires from sensor to
DCS and to the control valves
• Less expensive installations and better reliability
• Can mix different sources (vendors) of sensors,
transmitters, and control valves
• Now commercially available and beginning to
replace DCSs

23
 Fieldbus Architecture

Plant-Wide Network

.................
Local Local
Area Area
Network Network

Smart Smart Control Smart Smart Control

Sensors Valves and Sensors Valves and
Controllers Controllers

Fieldbus Network Fieldbus Network

24
a
PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)

The Programmable logic controller (PLC),

or programmable controller is an industrial
digital computer which has been ruggedized and
adapted for the control of manufacturing processes,
such as assembly lines, or robotic devices, or any
activity that requires high reliability control and ease
of programming and process fault diagnosis.

25
26
Sensor Systems
You cannot control what you cannot measure (Tom DeMarco)

 Sensor
• temperature sensors
• flow sensors
• level sensors
• pressure sensors
• composition analyzers
 Transmitter

27
 Major issues for selecting
sensors
 Accuracy  Process measurement
dynamics
 Reproducibility
 Calibration
 Linearity
 Maintenance
 Reliability
 Consistency with process
 Sensitivity
environment
 Resolution
 Dynamic safety
 Range/Span and Zero
 Cost

28
 Accuracy vs Reproducibility
Accuracy - Degree of conformity to a standard (or true) value
when a sensor is operated under specified conditions.

Reproducibility - The closeness of agreement among a number of

consecutive measurements of the same variable (value) under the
same operating conditions over a period of time, approaching
from both directions.
Linearity - This is the closeness to a straight line of the
relationship between the true process variable and the
measurement.
29
 Reliability, Sensitivity & Resolution
Reliability – probability that a device will adequately perform (as
specified) for a period of time under specified operating conditions.
Some sensors are required for safety or product quality, and
therefore, they should be very reliable.

Sensitivity - minimum input of physical parameter that will

create a detectable output change.

Resolution - smallest detectable incremental change of input

parameter that can be detected in the output signal.

Rangeability - ratio of the largest accurate sensor reading to the

smallest accurate sensor reading.

30
 Span and Zero
Span - Difference between maximum and minimum reading values.
The larger the range, the poorer the accuracy, and reproducibility
=> engineers select the smallest range that satisfies the process
requirements.

Zero - Minimum reading value.

Example: A temperature sensor can read maximum up to 500oC and minimum

200oC. What are the span and zero of the sensor?

Zero = 200oC (minimum reading)

Span = 500 – 200 = 300oC

Suppose that that sensor has an accuracy of 99%, what would be the sensor
reading when it is dipped in a hot oil at temperature 150oC?

31
 Process measurement dynamics,
Calibration and Maintenance
Process measurement dynamics - Time constant and deadtime.
 Short time constant is better for good control performance.
 Long deadtime may cause control instability.

Calibration - Comparing the reading of a sensor against the

standard sensor for a particular measurement.

Maintenance - Sensors require occasional testing and replacement

of selected components that can wear. Engineers must know the
maintenance requirements so that they can provide adequate
spare parts and personnel time. Naturally, the maintenance costs
must be included in the economic analysis of a design.
32
Consistency with process environment - Most sensors will function
properly for specific process conditions. For example, many flow
sensors function for a single phase, but not for multi-phase fluid
flow, whether vapour-liquid or slurry. The engineer must observe
the limitations for each sensor.

Some sensors can have direct contact with the process materials,
while others must be protected.

Safety - The sensor and transmitter often require electrical

power. Since the sensor is located at the process equipment, the
environment could contain flammable gases, which could explode
when a spark occurs.

33
 Smart Sensors

Sensors with onboard microprocessors that offer a number of

diagnostic, signal conditioning, configuration capabilities.

Digital conversion and transmission - The “signal” from the

sensor not only transmits a single value representing the
measured value but also additional information, including
diagnostics and corrected estimates of a variable based on
multiple sensors.

All values can be transmitted digitally, which allows many sensor

values to be sent by the same cabling, which reduces the cost of
an individual cable for each measurement, as required with
analog transmission.
34
Temperature: Local display is possible using
thermometers and bimetallic sensors

http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/
topics/heat/thermometer.htm
Citation: Omega WWW site

 No external power required and low cost.

 Not generally used for transmission to a
controller or remote display.

35
Actuator System

 Control Valve
• Valve body
• Valve actuator
 I/P converter or transducer

 Instrument air system

(booster/compressor)

36
Control Valve

Control valve can be classified as

 Direct Acting Valve

 Reverse Acting Valve

37
 Direct Acting Valve

This valve also called fail closed valve, meaning that if the air
system (compressor) fails, then the valve will be fully closed. For
this case, the air is fed from the bottom of the diaphragm while the
spring is located at the top of the diaphragm.

Applications: To control the flow rate of dangerous materials, e.g.,

hot steam, toxic feed, corrosive stream, etc. We prefer the valve to
be fully closed if there is a trip in the compressor electrical system
because simply letting hot steam flow to a unit without control can
damage the unit, or even can cause unsafe conditions leading to an
accident.

38
 Reverse Acting Valve

 This valve is also called fail open valve, meaning that if the air system
fails for some reasons, then valve will be fully opened. In this case,
the air is fed above the diaphragm while the spring located at the
bottom of the diaphragm.

 Applications: This valve is commonly used to control flow rate of a

stream carrying cooling liquid, or a material which is crucial for
downstream processing. E.g., the cooling water flow rate in a heat
exchanger is often controlled using a Reverse Acting Valve, since we
prefer the cooling water to continue even if the compressor fails. In
this way, we can avoid unsafe conditions, e.g., overheating of the heat
exchanger.

39
Valve Actuator Selection - Summary
 Choose an air-to-open for applications for which it is
desired to have the valve fail closed.
 Also known as fail closed valve.
Fail closed means the valve will close when the
control signal is interrupted or lost.

 Choose an air-to-close for applications for which it is

desired to have the valve fail open.
 Also known as fail open valve.
Fail open means a valve would open at a loss of signal or
power.
40
Valves: What are important features for process
control?

Capacity = The maximum flow rate through the flow

system (pipes, valves, and process equipment) must meet
operating requirements.

Range = The range indicates the extent of flow values that

the valve can reliably regulate; very small and large flows
cannot be maintained at desired values. Range is reported
as the ratio of largest to smallest.

Pressure drop = The purpose of the valve is to create a

variable pressure drop in the flow system. However, a
large (non-recoverable) pressure drop wastes energy.
41
Summary
 Control loop hardware consists of (1) sensors &
transmitters, (2) actuators, transducers & air system, and
(3) computers.
 Sensor terminologies: span, zero, repeatability, time
constant, deadtime, calibration, etc.
 Globe control valve types: equal percentage, linear and
quick opening.
 Valve selections: fail open and fail closed.
For a good control system, it is important to choose the right
sensors and actuators.
42
Supplementary Material

43
 Temperature Sensor Comparison
Sensor Type Limits of Application Accuracy Dynamics: Advantages Disadvantages
(°C) t (s)
Thermocouple
type E: ±1.5 or 0.5% for 0 -good reproducibility
-100 to 1000 -minimum span of 40 °C
chromel-constantan to 900 °C -wide range
type J: Depending -temperature vs. emf not
0 to 750 ±2.2 or 0.75% exactly linear
iron-constantan strongly on the
type K: thermowell
0 to 1250 ±2.2 or 0.75% -drift over time
chromel-nickel (material,
diameter, and -low emf corrupted by
type T: ±1.0 or 1.5% for - wall thickness), noise
-160 to 400
copper-constantan 160 to 0 °C the location of
the element in
the sheath (i.e. -good accuracy -self-heating
RTD -200 to 650 ±0.20 or 0.002 % bonded or air -small span possible -less physically rugged
space, the fluid
type, and the -linearity -self-heating error
fluid velocity.
Typical values
are 2 to 5 -highly nonlinear
seconds for
Thermistor -40 to 150 ± 0.10 °C high fluid -good accuracy -only small span
velocities. -little drift -less physically rugged
-drift

-low cost
Bimetallic - ± 2% - -local display
-physically rugged
-not high temperatures
-simple and low cost
Filled system -200 to 800 ± 1% 1 to 10 -sensitive to external
-no hazards
pressure 44
Cost - Sensors involve costs and when selected properly, provide
benefits. These must be quantified, and a profitability analysis performed.
Process variable Cost Comments
(US$ in 2003)
Flow - orifice 500-3500 Flange connections, 2-12 in pipe
Flow - pitot and similar 1000-2000 Calibration costs extra
Flow - mass 1500-7000 1 in. pipe, cost depends strongly on sensor technology
Flow - positive displacement 3000-5000 1500 SCMH
Flow - turbine 3000 2-3 in. pipe, cost depends strongly on pipe size
Flow - venturi/nozzle 500-1000 6 in. pipe, costs vary depending on sensor type and materials
of construction
Temperature - thermocouple 200 Cost includes thermal well. With transmitter could cost up to
$2000
Temperature - RTD 100-250 Cost includes thermal well. With transmitter could cost up to
$2000
Temperature - thermister See RTD
Temperature - optical pyrometer 500-5500 Thermal imaging much more expensive
Temperature - bimetalic 65 For local display only
Pressure - bourdon 300 Local indication
Pressure - electronic 1000-4000 Many technologies (See Liptak, 2003)
Level - pressure difference 1500 Local indicators few hundred dollars
Level - float 2000-5000 Switch or local indicator lower cost
Level - displacement 2500
Level - Laser 4000-6000
Level - Radar 1500-5000
Level - Ultransonic 650-2500
Analyzer - sampling system 3500-7000 Single sample stream
Analyzer - installation -- Varies depending upon the location, safety requirements,
and analyzer technology
Analyzer -- 45
Must determine the cost for each analyzer type individually
Thermocouples: Specific metal pairs are used in
practice for selected accuracies and ranges of
temperature

T2 T1

“Seebeck effect: When two wires composed of dissimilar

metals are joined at both ends and the ends are at
different temperatures, there is a continuous current
which flows in the thermoelectric circuit. Thomas Seebeck
made this discovery in 1821.

If this circuit is broken at the center, the net open circuit

voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function of the junction
temperatures and the composition of the two metals.”

Citation: Omega WWW site 46

Thermocouples: Specific metal pairs are used in
practice for selected accuracies and ranges of
temperature

We seek a nearly linear relationship between voltage

and temperature, and we correct the mild non-linearity.
Accuracy is not good,  2 C.
Voltage vs
Temperature

One junction assumed to be at 0 C Citation: Omega WWW site 47

 RTDs: Electrical resistance depends on
temperature, with higher temperature having
higher resistance

T1

Generally higher accuracy ( 0.1 C), less

physically robust and more expensive than
thermocouples.
The relationship is nearly linear but still
requires a correction for high accuracy.

Citation: Omega WWW site 48

 Thermisters: Electrical resistance depends on
temperature, with lower temperature having
higher resistance

Provides higher
accuracy than other
two devices, much less
physically robust, and
can lose accuracy if
operated outside of
recommended range.

Generally used in temperature range from below 0 C to

a few hundred C.

Citation: Omega WWW site 49

 Thermocouples, RTDs, and Thermistors:
Generally in shield to protect sensor from the
process environment and to protect the
process materials from the sensor.

Thermistor

RTD

Thermocouple
Citation: Omega WWW site 50
 Flow Sensor Comparison

Sensor Rangeability Accuracy Dynamics (s) Advantages Disadvantages

-low cost -high pressure loss

orifice 3.5:1 2-4% of full span -
-extensive industrial practice -plugging with slurries

-lower pressure loss than

-high cost
venturi 3.5:1 1% of full span - orifice
-line under 15 cm
-slurries do not plug

-good for slurry service -higher cost than orifice plate

flow nozzle 3.5:1 2% full span -
-intermediate pressure loss -limited pipe sizes

elbow meter 3:1 5-10% of full span - -low pressure loss -very poor accuracy

0.5-1.5% of full -low pressure loss -poor performance with dirty or

annubar 3:1 -
span -large pipe diameters sticky fluids
-high cost
0.25% of -wide rangeability
turbine 20:1 - -strainer needed, especially for
measurement -good accuracy
slurries
-wide rangeability
1% of -insensitive to variations in
vortex shedding 10:1 - -expensive
measurement density, temperature,
pressure, and viscosity
-high pressure drop
positive 0.5% of -high rangeability
10:1 or greater - -damaged by flow surge or
displacement measurement -good accuracy
solids
51
 Sensors: How do we measure fluid flow?

This control system requires a flow measurement. Let us

consider a situation in which the liquid is a “clean fluid” with
turbulent flow through the pipe.

FC

liquid

cooling

52
 Sensors: How do we measure fluid flow?

The most frequently used flow sensor is the orifice meter. What
is the basic principle for this sensor?

FC

liquid

cooling How can we use

this behaviour to
measure flow?

Velocity increases;
Bernoulli says that
53
pressure decreases
 Sensors: Principles of the orifice meter

Nice visual display of concept.

In practice, pressure difference
is measured by a reliable and
electronic sensor =
P orifice

From: Superior Products, Inc. http://www.orificeplates.com/

54
 v = velocity
Relate the
pressure drop F = volumetric flow rate
to the flow rate f = frictional losses
r= density
A = cross sectional area

Bernoulli’s
eqn.

General meter
eqn.

Y=The compressibility factor, accounts for the expansion of compressible gases for
incompressible fluids, Y=1

Installed orifice 0 = aver. density

meter C0 = constant for
(requires density specific meter
measurement)

Installed orifice F K P1  P3 Most common flow

calculation, does not
meter require density
measurement 55
(assuming constant
 Sensors: Is there a downside to orifices?

What can occur after

the orifice plate that
can make the
measurement useless?

Cavitation!
The liquid could be near
pressure

P = P1 –
its bubble point, so that a
orifice

P3 decrease in pressure could

lead to partial
vaporization. This results
in extreme noise in the
Distance  pressure difference.
56
 Sensors: Is there a downside to orifices?

What is a key
disadvantage of the
orifice meter?

Ploss = P1 – P2

Pressure loss!
When cost of pressure
pressure

P = P1 – increase (P1) by
orifice
Non-
P3 recoverable pumping or compression
pressure
drop
is high, we want to avoid
the “non-recoverable”
Distance 
pressure loss.
57
 Pressure Sensor Comparison
Limits of
Sensor Accuracy Dynamics Advantages Disadvantages
Application
bourdon, "C" up to 100 MPa 1-5% of full span -
-low cost with
-hysteresis
reasonable accuracy
spiral up to 100 MPa 0.5% of full span - -affected by shock and
-wide limits of
vibration
application
helical up to 100 MPa 0.5-1% of full span -

-smaller pressure range of

typically vacuum to -low cost application
bellows 0.5% of full span -
500 kPa -differential pressure -temperature compensation
needed

0.5-1.5% of full -very small span -usually limited to low

diaphragm up to 60 kPa -
span possible pressures (i.e. below 8 kPa)

capacitance/
up to 30 kPa 0.2% of full span - - -
inductance

Resistive / -large range of

up to 100 MPa 0.1-1% of full span fast -
strain gauge pressures

-sensitive to temperature
piezoelectric - 0.5% of full span very fast -fast dynamics
changes
58
Pressure affects chemical reactions, separations,
and many other key process performance
indicators. It should not exceed the strength of
the vessel!
Bourdon Tube for local display of
pressure

Citation: Omega WWW site 59

No external power and low cost
Pressure using Strain Gauge: A change in strain
affects the electrical resistance of a metal.

Appropriate for a range of pressures from 3” water to

rather high (200,000 psi, 1400 MPa)
Citation: Omega WWW site 60
 Level Sensor Comparison
Limits of
Sensor Accuracy Dynamics Advantages Disadvantages
Application

-cannot be used with sticky

float up to 1 m - - -can be used for switches
fluids which coat the float

-limited range
displacement 0.3-3 m - - -good accuracy -cost of external mounting
for high pressures

-good accuracy
-assumes constant density
differential essentially no -large range
- - -sealed lines sensitive to
pressure upper limit -applicable to slurries temperature
with use of sealed lines

-applicable for slurries

-affected by density
capacitance up to 30 m - - -level switch for many variations
difficult fluids
61
Level Sensors

 Usually based on the hydrostatic head in a vessel

measured by the differential pressure.
 Has a repeatability of about ±1% with a time
constant less than 1 second.
 Level measurements based upon a float or
sound / electromagnetic waves are also used in
special situations.

62
Typical Differential Pressure-
based Level Measurement

Upper Tap

Diaphragm
Vapor

DPT
Liquid

Lower Tap

63
Float based level sensing

64
Non-contact level measurements

Ultrasound Radar/Microwave
65
Composition Analyser Sensors

 Gas Chromatography (GC)

• The most common composition analyzer.
• Based on plug flow of a volatile sample through a packed
bed – considerable dead time involved.
 Deadtime and repeatability depend on the particular
components being measured.
 Radiation absorption - infrared, ultraviolet, and
visible, e.g., UV-Vis spectrophotometer
• Can be effective for certain components.
 Sample system can affect dynamics and reliability of
composition measurement.
66
Inferential/soft sensors
In some cases, the real time measurement of process variables
using hardware sensors is either difficult or involving a long
time-delay or expensive.
Soft sensors – mathematical models used to predict hard-to-
measure variables from easy-to-measure variables are possible
alternatives.

X1

X2
Soft sensor Y
X3

X4
67
 Inferential/soft sensors
MLR and PLS - most popular in industrial applications due to
their simplicity and practicability.
Table 2: Statistics of soft sensor application (Kano and Ogawa, 2010; Kano
and Koichi, 2013)
Methods
Process
Phys MLR PLS O.L. ANN JIT Gray Total
Distillation 20 256 41 6 0 5 3 331
Reaction 5 32 43 0 0 5 1 86
Polymerization 0 4 8 0 3 0 5 20
Others 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 2
Total 25 293 93 6 3 10 9 439

Model-driven soft sensor ˃˃˃ Phys: physical model

68
Data-driven soft sensor ˃˃˃ MLR: multiple linear regression; PLS: partial least squares regression; O.L.:
Typical Globe Control Valve

69
 Types of Globe Valves
1. Quick Opening- used for safety by-pass applications
where quick opening is desired
2. Equal Percentage- used for about 90% of control valve
applications since it results in the most linear installed
characteristics
3. Linear- used when a relatively constant pressure drop
is maintained
1 across the valve
Note. f(x) here is a normalised valve
coefficient
QO
0.5 f(x) = actual flowrate at x/max flowrate
f(x)

Linear
= actual valve coefficient at x/
=% valve coefficient at max flowrate
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
x= Stem Position (% Open)
70
The desired valve characteristic is achieved through
the design of the valve seat and plug

These examples are for a globe valve body

71
 Control valve calculations

Fv is the volumetric flow rate through the valve; K is a constant

that depends on the units used in this equation, Cv(x) is the valve
coefficient which depends on the stem position (x)

Riggs & Karim, 2006 (Chapter722, p49)

Determine flowrate through control
valve for specified pressure drop

Riggs & Karim, 2006 (Chapter

73 2)
Determine valve pressure
drop

Riggs & Karim, 2006 (Chapter

74 2)
Determine flowrate through control
valve given installed ΔP-Fv data

75
Determine flowrate through control
valve given installed ΔP-Fv data

Riggs & Karim, 2006 (Chapter

76 2)
For Large Diameter Lines (>6”)
=> use a Butterfly Valve

77
Optional Equipment
 Valve positioner
• a controller that adjusts the air instrument in
order to maintain the stem position at the
specified position.
• Substantially reduces the deadband of the valve.
 Positioners are almost always used on valves
serviced by a DCS.
 Booster relay - provides high-capacity air
flow to the actuator of a valve.
• Can significantly increase the speed of large
valves. 78
 Valve Positioner

Valve
Positioner

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Booster Relay

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Valve Deadband

 Definition: It is the maximum change in

instrument air pressure to a valve that does not
cause a change in the flow rate through the
valve.
 Deadband determines the degree of precision
that a controller can provide.
 Deadband is affected by the friction between the
valve stem and the packing.

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Control Relevant Aspects of
Actuator Systems

• The key factors are the deadband of the actuator

and the dynamic response as indicated by the time
constant of the valve.
• Control valve by itself- deadband 10-25% and a
time constant of 3-15 seconds.
• Control valve with a valve positioner or in a flow
control loop- deadband 0.1-0.5% and a time
constant of 0.5-2 seconds.

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References

http://www.pc-education.mcmaster.ca/Instrumentation/go_inst.htm

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Any questions?

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