Lec.Engr.M.

Ubaidullah

1
Measurement and
Instrumentation

Lecture#1

Engr. M.Ubaidullah

2
Course Outline:
1. Basics Concepts
2. Essentials of Analog Instruments
3. Galvanometers, Ammeters & Voltmeters
4. Watt meters & Energy meters
5. Measurement of Resistance
6. Measurement of Inductance and Capacitance (AC
Bridges)
7. Oscilloscopes
8. Transducers
9. Misc. Electrical Instruments
10. Electronics Instruments
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Advance Outline:
 Signal Generation By: Helfrick Chapter: 8
 Frequency Counters and Time interval
Measurements By: Helfrick Chapter: 10

4
Reference Books:
 Berlin, Electronic Instruments &
Measurements
 Modern Electronic Instrumentation &
Measurement Techniques – A.D. Hell Frick
and W.D Cooper.
 Electronic Instrumentation & Measurements -
David A Bell
 A course in Electronic and electrical
measurements and Instrumentation by J.B.
Gupta

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Objective of the Course:

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Grading Scheme:
 Assignments 3-4 10%
 Quizzes 3-4 10%

 Midterm 30%
 Final Term 50%

There will be a 50% deduction in retake of

assignments and quizzes in case of genuine
reason within one week of deadline.
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1.Basics Concepts
1.1 Measurement Methods
1.2 Type of Measurement
1.3 Instruments
1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.
1.5 Terms related to measurement
1.6 Errors in measurement
1.7 Types of errors

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Electronics:

Deals with motion of electrons

9
Measurement:

man uses his imaginative skills

to identify a physical phenomena
Developed & utilized a means to understand this.

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By measurement of a quantity,
we mean “an act of comparison”

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Instrumentation:

Deals with Science and technology

of measurement of large no. of variables
Uses principles in physics ,
chemistry & Appld. Science (Engg),
Electrical. Electronics,
Mech,computer, commn. etc.

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1.1 Measurement Methods
 Direct Comparison method:
• Mostly used method
• Unknown quantities are measured with comparison of known
standards, e.g. length, mass etc
• This is not very accurate method, as human errors are
involved.
 Indirect Comparison method:
• More accurate than Direct method
• More sensitive
• Quantity is converted in analog form
• Analog signal is processed and fed to the measuring
instrument
• The device which converts the quantity into suitable form is
called transducer.
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1.1 Measurement Methods

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1.1 Measurement Methods
 Indirect Comparison method:
• Amplification of the weak signal before giving it to the
measurement.

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1.2 Type of Measurement
 Primary Measurements:
 Direct measurement with comparison of respective standard.
 Needs no conversion in the measuring data.
 E.g. length, time, mass etc

 Secondary Measurements:
 Needs one conversion.
 E.g. to measure pressure, 1st it will be converted into suitable
form by a transducer then fed into the instrument.

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1.2 Type of Measurement
 Tertiary Measurements:
 Needs two conversions.
 E.g. temperature measurement by thermocouples, involves
1st temperature conversion into voltage and then 2 nd
conversion into some readable form through a meter.

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1.2 Type of Measurement
 Tertiary Measurements:
 Needs two conversions.
 E.g. temperature measurement by thermocouples, involves
1st temperature conversion into voltage and then 2 nd
conversion into some readable form through a meter.

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1.3 Instruments

An instrumentation may be defined

as a device which helps
to determine value of an unknown quantity.

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1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.
 (A)
 Mechanical instruments.
 Used to measure static
and stable quantities.
 E.g. force, pressure etc
 They cant measure
dynamic and variable
quantities.
 E.g. are pressure gauge,
speedometer, water meter
Tire pressure gauge

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1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.
 (A)
 Electrical Instruments.
 Faster than mechanical instruments
 However, their measuring part is also mechanical like
needle, springs etc
 They are more accurate and sensitive
 They can measure dynamic quantities like current (varying
at the rate of 50Hz/sec) measuring by ammeter.
 E.g. are ammeters, voltmeters etc

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1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.
 (A)
 Electronic Instruments.
 Modern than the previous 2 types.
 Uses semiconductor devices like diodes, transistors etc
which have excellent time response and have no noise
pollution.
 E.g. are CRO, Power supplies etc.

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1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.
 (B)
 Instruments can also be classified as:
 Absolute instruments.
 Secondary Instruments.
 Analog instruments

 Digital Instruments

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1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.
 (B)
 Absolute instruments.
 Which gives measurement quantity in terms of constant of
the instrument.
 Used in the laboratory for calibration and standardization.
 E.g. Tangent galvanometer

 Secondary Instruments.
 Gives the measurement of the quantity directly on the
instrument.
 E.g. frequency meter, ohm meter, volt meter etc

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1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.
 (B)
 Secondary Instruments.
 Analog instruments.
 Measure analog signals.

 E.g. temperature

 Digital Instruments.
 Gives the digital measurement like DMM

 Also measure the analog signal.

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1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.
 Errors in analog instruments:

 Parallax error
While taking reading, eye and pointer should be in
the same line, otherwise error occurs, called parallax
error.
This error cant be removed completely.
 Human error
Reading wrongly or recorded wrongly.
Parallax is also a type of human error.

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1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.
 Instrumentations can also be classified as:
 Indicating Instruments
Indicating instruments indicate, generally the
quantity to be measured by means of a pointer which
moves on a scale. Examples are ammeter, voltmeter,
wattmeter etc.
 Recording Instruments
These instruments record continuously the variation
of any electrical quantity with respect to time. In
principle, these are indicating instruments but so
arranged that a permanent continuous record of the
indication is made on a chart or dial.

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1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.
 Integrating instruments.
 These instruments record the consumption of the total
quantity of electricity, energy etc., during a particular
period of time.
 That is, these instruments totalize events over a specified
period of time. No indication of the rate or variation or the
amount at a particular instant are available from them.
 Some widely used integrating instruments are: Ampere-
hour meter: kilowatt-hour (kWh) meter, kilovolt-ampere-
hour
(kVARh) meter.

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1.5 Terms related to measurement
 Instrument.
 Device to measure the value
 True Value.
 The true or expected value of a quantity to be measured may be
defined as the average of an infinite number of measured values
when the average deviation due to the various contributing factors
tends to zero.
 It also refers to a value of the quantity under consideration that
would be obtained by a method (known as exemplar method)
agreed upon by experts.
 In other words, it is the most probable value that calculations
indicate and one should expect to measure. Note that the value of
the unknown obtained by making use of primary standards and
measuring instruments is considered to be its true value.

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1.5 Terms related to measurement
 Error.
 it is the deviation of the measured (or indicated) value from
the true (or expected) value of a quantity.
 In other words, error is the difference between the measured
value and the true value of the unknown quantity.
 It is also called absolute error or maximum possible error.
Then error of measurements is given by
 ∈A = Am – At ---------(1)
where Am = measured value of the quantity
At = true value of the quantity

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1.5 Terms related to measurement

 Accuracy.
 Closeness of readings to the true value
 It is expressed as %age of true value.

 Precision.
 It is measure of the consistency of reproducibility (repeatability) of
the measurement (i.e., the successive reading do not differ).
 For a given fixed value of an input variable, precision is a measure
of the degree to which successive measurement differ from one
another.

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1.5 Terms related to measurement
Sensitivity.
It is defined by the change in the output or response of the
instrument for a unit change of input or measured variable.

 Efficiency.
 Ratio of the measured quantity at full scale to the input
power taken by the instrument.
 Resolution or Discrimination.
 Resolution is the smallest change in a measured variable (or
measurand) to which the instrument will respond.

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Numerical

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Numerical

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1.5 Terms related to measurement
 Fidelity.
If the instrument produces the o/p exactly the replica of the input,
process is said to 100% fidelity.
 E.g. if a sine wave is fed to a CRO, the output of CRO should be
an exact sine wave without any distortion.
 Torque weight Ratio: (T/W)
 Ratio of the deflecting torque produced on the moving system and
weight of the moving system.
 For accuracy this ratio should be less.
 Response speed and response time:
 Rapid response of the instrument to the applied input.
 Time taken by the instrument to respond to the changes in the i/p.

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1.6 Errors in measurement
1. Gross error
2. Systematic error
3. Random error

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1.6 Errors in measurement
 Gross error
 The class of error mainly covers human mistake in reading
instruments recording and calculating result.
 These can be avoided by two means :-
 Great care should be taken with reading & recording the
data.
 2, 3 or more reading should be taken for the quantity
under measurement.
 some gross error can be detected & some others can not.
 complete elimination is not possible.

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1.6 Errors in measurement
 Systematic error

 These are divided as

 Instrumental
 Environmental
 Observational

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1.6 Errors in measurement
 Systematic error
 These are divided as

Instrumental error:
 Due to inherent short comings in the instrument.
 Due to misuse of instrument.
 Due to loading effect of instrument.
 Cab be reduced by:
 Substitution method or calibration against
standard may be used for the purpose.
 Correction factors should be applied after
determining instrumental errors.
 Instrument may be recalibrated carefully.

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1.6 Errors in measurement
 Systematic error
 These are divided as
 Environmental
 due to surroundings E.g. Noise from
electrical machine. Magnetic field,
temperature
 Observational
 may be due to misreading of instruments.

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1.6 Errors in measurement
 Random Error:
 Errors due to unknown Causes.
 Magnitude and direction not known
 Expressed as average deviation of probable errors or
standard deviation
 Can be reduced by:
 Increasing the no. of readings and using
statically method.

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Statistical Analysis:
 Arithmetic Mean

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Statistical Analysis:
 Deviation from Mean

d1=x1- A.M.

d2=x2- A.M.

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Statistical Analysis:
 Average Deviation

D=  |di| / n

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Statistical Analysis:
Standard Deviation

 = sqrt ( |d i| 2/ n)
For finite observations
 = sqrt ( |d i| 2/ (n-1))

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Statistical Analysis:
Variance

v=  2

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Statistical Analysis:
Probable error
 = +/- 0.6745 

(obtained from Gaussian error curve)

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Statistical Analysis:
Limiting error

specified by manufactures

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Summary:
1.1 Measurement Methods
1.2 Type of Measurement
1.3 Instruments
1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.
1.5 Terms related to measurement
1.6 Errors in measurement
1.7 Types of errors
Statistical Analysis

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 Numerical Examples:

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Course Outline:
1. Basics Concepts
2. Essentials of Analog Instruments
3. Galvanometers, Ammeters & Voltmeters
4. Watt meters & Energy meters
5. Measurement of Resistance
6. Measurement of Inductance and Capacitance (AC
Bridges)
7. Misc. Electrical Instruments
8. Electronics Instruments
9. Transducers

51
2.Essentials of Analog Instruments
 2.1 classification of analog instruments
 2.2 effects of current utilized by analog
instruments
 2.3 Essential forces of indicating instruments
 2.4 Production of deflecting torque
 2.5 Production of controlling torque
 2.6 Production of damping torque

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 Instruments in which the output is a continuous
function of the time and bears a constant relation
to the input-Analog Instrument.

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 2.1 Classification of analog instruments

A) According to the quantity they measure e.g. the

table given below and respective instrument.

S.N Quantity Name of the instrument

1 Current Ammeter
2 Voltage Voltmeter
3 Power (watts) Wattmeter
4 Energy (w.h) Energy meter
5 Frequency Frequency meter
6 Power Factor P.F Meter
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The power factor of an AC electrical
power system is defined as the ratio
of the real power flowing to the load
to the apparent power in the circuit

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Active (Real or True) Power:

is measured in watts (W) and is the power drawn by the

electrical resistance of a system doing useful work.

Apparent Power:

is measured in volt-amperes (VA) and is the voltage on

an AC system multiplied by all the current that flows in it.
It is the vector sum of the active and the reactive power.

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2.1 Classification of analog instruments

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2.1 Classification of analog instruments

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2.1 Classification of analog instruments

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2.1 Classification of analog instruments

 B) According to the voltage or current that can be

measured, the instruments are classified as:
 AC Instruments
 DC Instruments
 AC/DC Instruments

According to the “effect of the current” utilized by

the instrument, they are classified as magnetic
instrument, heating instrument etc.

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2.1 Classification of analog instruments

 Instruments can also be classified according to their

functions.

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2.2 Effects of current utilized by analog instruments

 The instruments utilizes one of the effects of the

current for their operation. Important effects are
as under:
1. Magnetic effect
2. Electrodynamics effect
3. Thermal effect
4. Electrostatic effect
5. Induction effect
6. Chemical effect
7. Hall effect
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2.2 Effects of current utilized by analog instruments

 1)Magnetic effect:
 When electric current flows through a wire, it
behaves like a magnet. This is called magnetic
effect of electric current.
 A coil of wire with an electric current flowing through
it creates a magnetic field.
 Putting iron inside a current-carrying coil increases
the strength of the electromagnet.
 A changing magnetic field induces an electric current
in a conductor.

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Oersted showed that magnetic effects could be
produced by moving electrical charges;

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2.2 Effects of current utilized by analog instruments

 Magnetic effect:

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2.2 Effects of current utilized by analog instruments

 2) Electro dynamic effect:

 If two current carrying
coils are taken, they will
produce unlike poles near
each other.
 Thus there will be a force
of attraction between
each other.
 If one coil is movable and
other fixed, there will be
a motion of a movable
coil. This effect is known
as electro dynamic effect.

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2.2 Effects of current utilized by analog instruments

 3) Thermal effect:
 When electric current flows through a wire, the wire
gets heated. This is called the heating effect of
electric current.
 Uses of heating effects of electric current :-
 The heating effect of electric current is used in
electrical appliances like electric heater, electric iron,
electric room heater, electric kettle, hair dryer etc.
 All these appliances have a coil of wire called an
element. When electric current flows through the
element it becomes hot and gives out heat.
 The amount of heat produced in a wire depends upon
its material, length and thickness.
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2.2 Effects of current utilized by analog instruments

 Thermal effect:

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2.2 Effects of current utilized by analog instruments

 4) Electrostatic effect:
 A force exist between two charged plates.
 This force can be utilized to move one of the two
plates.
 Electrostatic voltmeters are used for
measurement.

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2.2 Effects of current utilized by analog instruments

 5) Induction effect:
 The finding that electric current can produce
magnetic fields led to the idea that magnetic
fields could produce electric currents.
 The production of emfs and currents by the
changing magnetic field through a
conducting loop is called induction.
 Electric currents induced in conductors when
exposed to a changing magnetic field-

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2.2 Effects of current utilized by analog instruments

 6) Chemical effect:

 The passage of an electric current through a

liquid causes chemical changes. This process is
known as electrolysis.
 Chemical effect is measured in ampere hour
meters, which measure the capacity of the
batteries.

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2.2 Effects of current utilized by analog instruments

 7) Hall effect:
 If an electric current flows
through a conductor in a
magnetic field, the magnetic
field exerts a
transverse (at right angle )fo
rce
on the moving
charge carriers which tends
to push them to one side of
the conductor.
 The Hall effect can be
used to measure the
average drift velocity of
the charge carriers 72
2.3 Essential forces of indicating instruments

 Following are the essential forces of indicating

instruments.

 Deflecting torque or force

 Required to move the moving system (and hence, the

pointer attached to it) from zero position when the

instrument is connected in the circuit to measure the
electrical quantity.
 The Deflecting or Operating Torque (T d ) is produced

by the effects such as Magnetic, Electrodynamics,

Electromagnetic induction etc

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2.3 Essential forces of indicating instruments

 Controlling torque or force

 1. Brings the pointer to zero position when
disconnected from the circuit.
 2. Allows the pointer to deflect in accordance to
the magnitude of electrical quantity.
 The Controlling or Restoring Torque (T c)
opposes the Td and increases with the deflection
of the moving system.
 At rest T d =T c
 Damping torque or force

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2.3 Essential forces of indicating instruments

 Damping torque or force

 Suppresses the undue oscillations of the pointer
and brings the pointer to its final position quickly.
 It always acts opposite to motion.

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2.3 Essential forces of indicating instruments

 Degree of Damping:


Under Damped.

 When the pointer oscillates about the final position and takes same
time to come to rest.


Over damped.
 When the pointer moves slowly to its final position in an lethargic
way. In this case it is very difficult to read the instrument.


Critical Damping / Dead Beat.
 When the pointer moves quickly and stops immediately to its final
position of rest.
 This situation is ideal and called critical damping.

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2.3 Essential forces of indicating instruments

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2.4 Production of deflecting torque
 Damping Methods:

 i) Air Friction Damping ii) Fluid Friction

Damping iii) Eddy Current Damping

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2.5 Production of controlling torque
 Two methods are used to provide the
controlling torque:
 1) Spring Control:
 2) Gravity Control

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2.5 Production of controlling torque
 1) Spring Control:

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2.5 Production of controlling torque
 1) Spring Control:

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2.5 Production of controlling torque
 1) Spring Control:

 Advantages:

 Instrument may be placed in horizontal or vertical

position.
 As the springs have negligible weights, there is no
increase in the weight of the instrument.
 The instrument have a uniform scale because
deflection torque is directly proportional to the current.

82
2.5 Production of controlling torque
 1) Spring Control:

 Disadvantages:

 Change of the temperature effects the lengths of the

springs and also the controlling torque.
 Hence, accuracy is lost.

83
2.5 Production of controlling torque
 1) Spring Control:

 Design of spring:
 Usually flat springs are used as the space required by
theses springs is less.
 For flat spring the controlling torque is:

 Tc= EBt3 θ /12L

 E = young modulus of spring material
 B = width of spring in m
 T = thickness of spring in m
 Θ = deflection of pointer in radian
 L = length of the spring in m
84
2.5 Production of controlling torque
 2) Gravity Control:

 In this method the principle of natural downward pull

due to gravity is applied.

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2.5 Production of controlling torque
 2) Gravity Control:

 In this method the principle of natural downward pull

due to gravity is applied.

86
2.5 Production of controlling torque
 2) Gravity Control:

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2.5 Production of controlling torque
 2) Gravity Control:

 Advantages:

 It is simple and cheep method.

 It is not effected by the temperature changes.
 By adjusting of the weight, the controlling torque
can be varied.

88
2.5 Production of controlling torque
 2) Gravity Control:

 Disadvantages:

 These have a non uniform scale and thus reading

becomes difficult.
 Instrument must be kept In vertical position. So they are
not portable. There use is limited to the indoors.
 The control weight adds to the weight of the instrument.

Due to these reasons, gravity control is not suited for

indicating instruments In general. This system is obsolete
now.
89
2.5 Production of controlling torque

90
2.5 Production of controlling torque
 Numerical Example: 2.1

91
2.6 Production of damping torque

Controlling torque controls the deflection and tries

to stop the pointer at its final position where its
Td = Tc
But due to inertia, the pointer oscillates around
its final position before coming to rest.
Hence damping torque is provided to avoid this
oscillation and bring the pointer quickly to its final position.

92
 2.6 Production of damping torque

1) Air friction Damping:

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2.6 Production of damping torque
 The piston moves in a fix air chamber, close
to the one end.
 Piston moves to and fro when there are
oscillations.
 The oscillations of the pointer are controlled
by the to and fro motion of the piston.
 This helps in settling down the pointer in its
final position.

94
2.6 Production of damping torque
 2) Fluid friction Damping:
 This damping is similar to air friction damping,
except that air is replaced by high viscosity oil.

95
2.6 Production of damping torque
 2) Fluid friction Damping:
 This damping is similar to air friction damping,
except that air is replaced by high viscosity oil.

Viscosity is a measure of a
fluid's resistance to flow.

96
2.6 Production of damping torque
 2) Fluid friction Damping:
 This damping is similar to air
friction damping, except that air is
replaced by high viscosity oil.
 The friction b/w fluid and disc is
used for opposing the motion.

97
2.6 Production of damping torque
 2) Fluid friction Damping:

98
2.6 Production of damping torque
 2) Fluid friction Damping:

 Disadvantages:

 This method is not suitable for portable instruments

because the fluid may overflow or spill out.
 The instrument can only be used in vertical position for
the same above reason.
 The “creeping” of the oil effects the accuracy of the
instrument.

99
2.6 Production of damping torque
 2) Fluid friction Damping:

100
2.6 Production of damping torque
 3)Eddy current or Electromagnetic Damping:

101
2.6 Production of damping torque
 3)Eddy current or Electromagnetic Damping:

102
2.6 Production of damping torque
 Numerical Examples: 2.2-2.3-2.4-

103
2.Essentials of Analog Instruments
Summary:
 2.1 classification of analog instruments
 2.2 effects of current utilized by analog
instruments
 2.3 Essential forces of indicating instruments
 2.4 Production of deflecting torque
 2.5 Production of controlling torque
 2.6 Production of damping torque

104
Course Outline:
1. Basics Concepts
2. Essentials of Analog Instruments
3. Galvanometers, Ammeters & Voltmeters
4. Watt meters & Energy meters
5. Measurement of Resistance
6. Measurement of Inductance and Capacitance (AC
Bridges)
7. Misc. Electrical Instruments
8. Electronics Instruments
9. Transducers

105
3. Galvanometers, Ammeters & Voltmeters

 3.1 Types of Galvanometers.

 3.2 D’arsonval Galvanometer.
 3.3 Conversion of D’arsonval Galvanometer into Ammeter and voltmeter.
 3.4 Extension of range of Ammeter and Voltmeter.
 3.5 Extension of range of Ammeter by shunt.
 3.6 Multi rang Ammeter.
 3.7 Extension of range of Voltmeter by voltage multipliers.
 3.8 Ammeters & Voltmeters.
 3.9 Types of instruments.
 3.10 Moving Iron (M.I) Instruments.
 3.11 Repulsion Type
 3.12 Deflecting torque equations.
 3.13 Attraction type Instruments.
 3.14 Advantages and Disadvantages of Iron type Instruments.
 3.15 Errors in M.I Instruments
 3.16 Range of M.I Instruments.
 3.17 Moving Coil (M.C) Instruments
 3.18 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instruments
 3.19 Ohmmeter

 Summary
106
3.1 Types of Galvanometers.

Galvanometer is an electromechanical
instrument which is used for the detection of
electric currents through electric circuits.
we can measure very small currents by using
galvanometer but the primary purpose of
galvanometer is the detection of electric current.

107
3.1 Types of Galvanometers.

108
3.1 Types of Galvanometers.
1. D'arsonval Galvanometer
 It is very simple and mostly used galvanometer.
2. Ballastic Galvanometer
 It is used to measure the quantity of charge passed
through it.
 Basically it is employed to measure the small changes
such as obtained in magnetic flux measurement.
 The “flux meter” is a special type of Ballastic
galvanometer.
3. Vibration Galvanometer
 Most widely used tuned detectors particularly as null point
detectors in ac bridges.
 They are manufactured for a frequency range of 5Hz to
1KHz
109
3.1 Types of Galvanometers.
1. Duddels Galvanometer
 Duddels oscillograph is basically a vibration
galvanometer, having a low period of
vibration.
 The natural frequency is about 12 KHz.

110
3.1 Types of Galvanometers.
1. D'arsonval
Galvanometer

 Also called
Permanent-Magnet
Moving Coil (PMMC).
 Based on the moving-
coil galvanometer
constructed by Jacques d’ Arsonval
Jacques d’ Arsonval in
1881.
111
3.1 Types of Galvanometers.
1. D'arsonval Galvanometer

 Can be used to indicate the value of DC and

AC quantity.
 Basic construction of modern PMMC can be
seen in Figure

112
3.1 Types of Galvanometers.
1. D'arsonval Galvanometer

113
3.1 Types of Galvanometers.
1. D'arsonval
Galvanometer

114
3.1 Types of Galvanometers.
1. D'arsonval
Galvanometer

115
3.1 Types of Galvanometers.
1.D'arsonval Galvanometer
WORKING PRINCIPLE

 Galvanometer works on the principle of conversion

of electrical energy into mechanical energy.
 When a current flows in a magnetic field it
experiences a magnetic torque.
 If it is free to rotate under a controlling torque, it
rotates through an angle proportional to the current
flowing through it.

116
3.1 Types of Galvanometers.
1. D'arsonval Galvanometer
ESSENTIAL PARTS OF GALVANOMETER

There are five essential parts of a Galvanometer.

1. A U-shaped permanent magnet .
2. Flat rectangular coil of thin enameled insulated
wire.
3. A soft iron cylinder.
4. A pointer or needle.
5. A scale.

117
3.1 Types of Galvanometers.
1. D'arsonval Galvanometer

Operation of D'arsonval Meter

 When current flows through the coil, the core will

rotate.
 Amount of rotation is proportional to the amount of
current flows through the coil.
 The meter requires low current (~50uA) for a full
scale deflection, thus consumes very low power.

118
3.1 Types of Galvanometers.
1. D'arsonval Galvanometer

Deflecting Torque Equation: Force * distance

N= Number of turns in the coil

I= current through the coil
A= rectangular area of the coil
B= flux density

119
 What is
Full Scale Deflection?

120
 Moving the indicator all the way up
What is
without hitting the stop pin.
The more sensitive the instrument,
Full Scale Deflection?
the less input it takes to reach
full scale deflection.

121
3.3 Conversion of D’arsonval Galvanometer into
Ammeter and voltmeter.

 The PMMC galvanometer constitutes the

basic movement of a dc ammeter.
 The coil winding of a basic movement is small
and light, so it can carry only very small
currents.
 A low value resistor (shunt resistor) is used in
DC ammeter to measure large current.

122
3.3 Conversion of D’arsonval Galvanometer into
Ammeter and voltmeter.

+
Rsh
Rm
_
D’Arsonval
_ Movement

123
3.3 Conversion of D’arsonval Galvanometer into
Ammeter and voltmeter.

Rm = internal resistance of the + Im

Ish
movement I +
Rsh = shunt resistance Rsh
Ish =shunt current Rm
_
Im = full scale deflection current
D’Arsonval
of the movement
_ Movement
I = full scale current of the
ammeter + shunt
(i.e. total current)

124
3.3 Conversion of D’arsonval Galvanometer into
Ammeter and voltmeter.

I sh Rsh I m Rm +
Ish
Im

I +
I sh I  I m Rsh
Rm
_
I m Rm D’Arsonval
Rsh  _ Movement

I  Im

125
 3.3 Conversion of D’arsonval Galvanometer into
Ammeter and voltmeter.

Example:

A 1mA meter movement with an internal

resistance of 100Ω is to be converted into
a 0-100 mA. Calculate the value of shunt
resistance required.

126
 3.3 Conversion of D’arsonval Galvanometer into
Ammeter and voltmeter.

A 1mA meter movement with an internal

resistance of 100Ω (Ans
is to be :converted into
a 0-100 mA. Calculate the value of shunt
resistance required.1.01Ω)
(ans: 1.01Ω)

127
3.3 Conversion of D’arsonval Galvanometer into
Ammeter and voltmeter.

 A basic D’Arsonval movement can be converted into a DC

voltmeter by adding a series resistor (multiplier) as shown
in Figure. Rs
+
Multiplie Im
r
V Rm

_
Basic DC Voltmeter

 Im =full scale deflection current of the movement (Ifsd)

 Rm=internal resistance of the movement
 Rs =multiplier resistance
 V =full range voltage of the instrument

128
3.3 Conversion of D’arsonval Galvanometer into
Ammeter and voltmeter.

129
3.3 Conversion of D’arsonval Galvanometer into
Ammeter and voltmeter.

V I m ( Rs  Rm ) Rs
+
V  I m Rm V Multiplie Im
Rs    Rm V
r
Rm
Im Im
_
V
Rs   Rm Basic DC Voltmeter
Im

130
 3.3 Conversion of D’arsonval Galvanometer into
Ammeter and voltmeter.

Example:
A basic D’ Arsonval movement with a full-
scale deflection of 50 uA and internal
resistance of 500Ω is used as a DC voltmeter.
Determine the value of the multiplier resistance
needed to measure a voltage range of 0-10V.

131
 3.3 Conversion of D’arsonval Galvanometer into
Ammeter and voltmeter.

Example:
A basic D’ Arsonval
Solution: movement with a full-
scale deflection of 50 uA and internal
resistance ofV 500Ω is10used
V as a DC voltmeter.
Rs   Rm   500 199.5k
Determine theI m value50 ofuAthe multiplier resistance
needed to measure a voltage range of 0-10V.

132
3.4 Extension of range of Ammeter
and Voltmeter.
 The range of the dc ammeter is extended by a number
of shunts, selected by a range switch.
 The resistors are placed in parallel to give different
current ranges.
 Switch S (multi position switch) protects the meter
movement from being damage during range changing.
 Increase cost of the meter.

133
3.5 Extension of range of Ammeter
by shunt.
MULTI-RANGE AMMETER

+
+
R1 R2 R3 R4
Rm
_
D’Arsonv
al
S Moveme
nt
_

Multi range Ammeter

134
3.7 Extension of range of Voltmeter
by voltage multipliers.
 MULTI-RANGE VOLTMETER
 A DC voltmeter can be converted into a multi range
voltmeter by connecting a number of resistors
(multipliers) in series with the meter movement.
 A practical multi-range DC voltmeter is shown in
Figure.
R1 R2 R3 R4

Im
V2
V1 V3
Rm

+
V4

_ 135
Examples: 3.1-3.10

136
3.8 Ammeters & Voltmeters.

 VOLTMETER LOADING EFFECTS

 When a voltmeter is used to measure the voltage
across a circuit component, the voltmeter circuit
itself is in parallel with the circuit component.
 Total resistance will decrease, so the voltage
across component will also decrease. This is called
voltmeter loading.
 The resulting error is called a loading error.
 The voltmeter loading can be reduced by using a
high sensitivity voltmeter.
137
I1 resistors in
parallel
I2
1 1 1 1
    
I3 Req R1 R2 R3

I I1  I 2  I 3
138

© 2005 Pearson Education

3.8 Ammeters & Voltmeters.

 AMMETER INSERTION EFFECTS

 Inserting Ammeter in a circuit always
increases the resistance of the circuit E
and, thus always reduces the current Ie 
in the circuit. The expected current: R1

 Placing the meter in series with R1

causes the current to reduce to a
value equal to: E
Im 
R1  Rm

139
 3.8 Ammeters & Voltmeters.
 Dividing equation yields:
Im R1

Ie R1  Rm

 The Ammeter insertion error is given by :

 Im 
 1   X 100
Insertion Error Ie
 

140
3.8 Ammeters & Voltmeters.

 Ammeters
 Ammeters measure current flowing in a circuit.
 They are galvanometers that are placed in parallel with a
resistor.
 The resistor in this capacity is referred to as a shunt. Its value is
chosen to be very small, in order to limit the amount of internal
resistance of the galvanometer.
 Galvanometers as ammeters can directly measure DC current
but to measure AC, a diode is placed inside the device.
 The purpose of this diode is to limit the current flow to one
direction. Without it, the needle would fluctuate back and forth or
not move at all, and it would not be possible to take a reading.

141
3.8 Ammeters & Voltmeters.

 Voltmeter
 Voltmeters measure the potential difference or
voltage in a circuit, and are galvanometers that are
placed in series with a resistor.
 Ideal galvanometers used this way must have an
infinite resistance, and this is approximated having
the value of the resistor be very large.
 Once again, a diode must be placed inside in order
for it to measure AC currents.

142
3.8 Ammeters & Voltmeters.

 Ammeters vs. Voltmeters

 Ammeters and voltmeters are the opposite of each other not only in
terms of construction, but of circuit placement.
 Ammeters must have current passing through them in order to measure
it, and so must be placed in series inside of a circuit.
 Polarity must be observed, and their positive and negative leads must
be connected to the positive and negative sides of the circuit,
respectively.
 Also, their internal resistance must not be large or it will block too much
current, and this will affect the way the circuit functions and hence the
reading.
 Voltmeters should not have any current passing through them, and so
are placed in parallel with the circuit they are to measure.
 Their leads are placed on each side of the component of interest, and
as with ammeters, polarity must be observed.
 If their internal resistance is too small it will not block enough current,
and this will affect the measurement.

143
3.9 Types of instruments using
Ammeter.
 The main types of instruments used as ammeters
and voltmeters are;

1. Moving iron type

1. Repulsion type
2. Attraction Type
2. Moving Coil Type
1. Permanent Magnet type
2. Dynamometer Type
3. Induction Type
4. Electrostatic Type
5. Hot wire Type

144
3.9 Types of instruments.
1. Moving iron type

 Moving-iron instruments are generally used to

measure alternating voltages and currents.
 In moving-iron instruments the movable system
consists of one or more pieces of specially-shaped
soft iron, which are so pivoted as to be acted upon
by the magnetic field produced by the current in coil.
 There are two types of moving iron instruments.
1. Repulsion type
2. Attraction Type

145
3.10 Moving Iron (M.I) Instruments.
1. Moving iron type

 The brief description of different components of a moving-iron

instrument is given below:

 Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or

rod.
 Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it
and also to magnetize the iron pieces.
 In repulsion type, a fixed vane or rod is also used and magnetized
with the same polarity.
 Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity).
 Damping torque the damping device consisting of an air chamber
and a moving vane attached to the instrument spindle.
 Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer
over a graduated scale.

146
3.11 Repulsion Type
1. Repulsion type

147
3.11 Repulsion Type
1. Repulsion type
 In repulsion type moving–iron instrument consists of two
cylindrical soft iron vanes mounted within a fixed current-
carrying coil.
 One iron vane is held fixed to the coil frame and other is free
to rotate, carrying with it the pointer shaft.
 Two irons lie in the magnetic field produced by the coil that
consists of only few turns if the instrument is an ammeter or of
many turns if the instrument is a voltmeter.
 Current in the coil induces both vanes to become magnetized
and repulsion between the similarly magnetized vanes
produces a proportional rotation.

148
3.12 Deflecting torque equations.

149
Moving Iron (M.I) Instruments.
 Measurement of Electric Voltage and
Current
 Moving iron instruments are used as Voltmeter
and Ammeter only.
 Both can work on AC as well as on DC.

150
Moving Iron (M.I) Instruments.
 Measurement of Electric Voltage and Current

 Ammeter

Instrument used to measure current in the circuit.

Always connected in series with the circuit and carries the current
to be measured.

This current flowing through the coil produces the desired
deflecting torque.

It should have low resistance as it is to be connected in series.
 Voltmeter

Instrument used to measure voltage between two points in a
circuit.

Always connected in parallel.

Current flowing through the operating coil of the meter produces
deflecting torque.

It should have high resistance. Thus a high resistance of order of
kilo ohms is connected in series with the coil of the instrument.
151
Moving Iron (M.I) Instruments.
 Advantages
 The instruments are suitable for use in AC and
DC circuits.
 The instruments are robust, owing to the
simple construction of the moving parts.
 The stationary parts of the instruments are
also simple.
 Instrument is low cost compared to moving
coil instrument.

152
Moving Iron (M.I) Instruments.
 Errors

 Error due to variation in temperature.

 Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to
the square of the current due to non-linear
characteristics of iron material.

153
3.13 Attraction Type
2. Attraction Type

154
3.13 Attraction Type
2. Attraction Type

 Uses only one iron piece which is movable.

 It gives uniform scale to the instrument.
 When the current flows through the coil a magnetic field is developed and
the iron piece experience the force of attraction and moves into the coil.
 As a result the pointer also moves on the scale.
 The controlling torque may be produced by the spring control or gravity
control method.
 The damping is provided through the air friction method.

155
Numerical Examples:

156
3.17 Moving Coil (M.C) Instruments

 These are of two types.

 Permanent Magnet Type

 Dynamometer type

157
3.17 Moving Coil (M.C) Instruments

 Permanent Magnet Type.

 We have already go through PMMC in detail.

 Deflecting force:
 F= NIBL Sinα
 N= No. of turns in the coil
 I=Current flowing through the coil
 B=Flux density
 L=Length of the coil
 α= Angle between the coil and the field

158
3.17 Moving Coil (M.C) Instruments

 Permanent Magnet Type.

 Deflecting Torque: Force*Distance

 Td= NIBL*D
 N= No. of turns in the coil
 I=Current flowing through the coil
 B=Flux density
 L=Length of the coil
 α= Angle between the coil and the field

159
3.17 Moving Coil (M.C) Instruments

 Permanent Magnet Type.

 Advantages:
 These instruments have low power
consumption.
 They have uniform scale.
 They are free from hysteresis losses.
 They provide current damping by eddy
current.

160
 If the magnetic field applied to a magnetic
material is increased and then decreased
back to its original value, the magnetic field
inside the material does not return to its
original value. The internal field 'lags' behind
the external field. This behavior results in a
loss of energy, called the hysteresis loss.

161
3.17 Moving Coil (M.C) Instruments

 Permanent Magnet Type.

 Disadvantages:
 They cant be used for ac measurements.
 They are costly than moving iron instruments.
 Ageing of control spring may cause error.

162
163
164
165
166
Chapter-4:
Watt meters & Energy meters
 ELECTRODYNAMOMETER-TYPE METERS
 Types of Wattmeter
 Dynamometer Wattmeter
 Types of Dynamometer Wattmeter
 Wattmeter connections
 Poly phase Wattmeter
 Energy meter
 Single phase induction type energy meter
 Lag adjustment in Energy meters
 Errors in induction type energy meter
 Adjustments in an energy meter
 Calibration of 1 phase energy meter
 summary
167
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER-TYPE METERS

 The electrodynamometer-type meter differs

from the galvanometer types.
 Two fixed coils are used to produce the
magnetic field instead of a permanent
magnet.
 Two movable coils are also used in the
electrodynamometer meter.
 The electrodynamometer meter is most
commonly found in various types of power
meters

168
 ELECTRODYNAMOMETER-TYPE METERS

The fixed coils are connected

in series and positioned
coaxially (in line) with a space
between them.
The two movable coils are
also positioned coaxially and
are connected in series.
The two pairs of coils (fixed
pair and movable pair) are
also connected in series with
each other.
169
 ELECTRODYNAMOMETER-TYPE METERS

The movable coil is pivot-

mounted between the fixed
coils.
The main shaft on which the
movable coils are mounted is
restrained by spiral springs
that restore the pointer to
zero when no current is
flowing through the coil.

170
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER-TYPE METERS

 METER ACCURACY

 The meter is mechanically damped by means of

aluminum vanes that move in enclosed air chambers.
 Although very accurate, electrodynamometer-type
meters do not have the sensitivity of the D'arsonval-
type meter movement.
 For this reason, you will not find them used outside of
the laboratory environment to a large extent.

171
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER-TYPE METERS

 METER MOVEMENT

 The primary advantage of the electrodynamometer-

type meter movement is that it can be used to
measure alternating as well as direct current.
 If you apply alternating current to the standard
galvanometer-type meter, it will not produce a usable
reading.
 Instead, the meter will vibrate at or near the zero
reading. On one-half cycle of the ac, the meter is
deflected to the left and on the other half cycle to thr
right.
172
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER-TYPE METERS

 METER MOVEMENT

 Since the frequencies you will be measuring

are 60 hertz or greater, the meter is incapable
of mechanically responding at this speed.
 The result is simply a vibration near the zero
point; in addition, no useful reading of voltage
or current is obtained.
 This problem does not exist with the
electrodynamometer-type movement.
 Current flow through the stationary (fixed)
coils sets up a magnetic field.
173
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER-TYPE METERS

 METER MOVEMENT

 Current flow through the moving coils sets up an

opposing magnetic field. With two magnetic fields
opposing, the pointer deflects to the right. If the current
reverses direction, the magnetic fields of both sets of
coils will be reversed. With both fields reversed, the
coils still oppose each other, and the pointer still
deflects to the right.
 Therefore, no rectifying devices are required to enable
the electrodynamometer meter movement to read both
ac and dc.
 Rectifying devices are required for the D’Arsonval-type
meter movement to enable it to be used for measuring
ac voltages and currents.
174
 Watt Meter
 Electric power is
measured by means of a
wattmeter.
 This instrument is of the
electrodynamometer type.
 It consists of a pair of
fixed coils, known as
current coils, and a
moving coil, called the
voltage (potential) coil.
 The fixed current coils are
wound with a few turns of
a relatively large
conductor (to measure
current).
175
 Watt Meter
 The voltage coil is wound
with many turns of fine
wire.
 It is mounted on a shaft
that is supported in
bearings so that it can
turn inside the stationary
coils.
 The movable coil carries a
needle (pointer) that
moves over a suitably
graduated scale.
 Coil springs hold the
needle at the zero position
in the absence of a signal
176
 Watt Meter
 Wattmeter Connection

 The dynamometer wattmeter has

four external connections.
 Two terminals for voltage and two
terminals for current.
 The current coil of the wattmeter is
connected in series with the circuit
(load), and the voltage coil is
connected across the line.

 When line current flows through the

current coil of a wattmeter, a field is
set up around the coil.

 The strength of this field is in phase

with and proportional to the line
current.
177
 Watt Meter
 Wattmeter Connection

 The voltage coil of the wattmeter

generally has a high-resistance
resistor connected in series with it.
 The purpose for this connection is to
make the voltage-coil circuit of the
meter as purely resistive as
possible.
 As a result, current in the voltage
circuit is practically in phase with line
voltage.
 Therefore, when voltage is
impressed on the voltage circuit,
current is proportional to and in
phase with the line voltage. Figure 3-
19 shows the proper way to connect
a wattmeter into a circuit

178
 Watt Meter
 Wattmeter Connection

 This Figure shows the

proper way to connect a
wattmeter into a circuit

179
Watt Meter
 Wattmeter Errors:

 Electrodynamic wattmeters are subject to

errors arising from such factors as
temperature and frequency.
 For example, heat through the coils
eventually causes the small springs attached
to the pointer to lengthen and lose tension,
which produces deflection errors.
 Large currents through the wattmeter also
produce a noticeable deflection error.

180
Watt Meter
 Wattmeter Errors:

 These errors are caused by the heat (I2R) loss

through coils from the application of high currents.
 Because of this, the maximum current range of
electrodynamic wattmeters is normally restricted
to approximately 20 amperes.
 The voltage range of wattmeters is usually limited
to several hundred volts because of heat
dissipation within the voltage circuit.

181
Watt Meter
 Wattmeter Errors:

 However, the voltage range can be extended

by the use of voltage multipliers.
 Good-quality, portable wattmeters usually
have an accuracy of 0.2 to 0.25 percent.
 You must remember, though, that
electrodynamic wattmeter errors increase
with frequency.
 For the higher frequency and power ranges,
special types of wattmeters are made
specifically for those ranges.
182
Watt Meter
 Wattmeter Overloads:

 The wattmeter consists of two circuits, either

of which will be damaged if too much current
passes through them.
 You should be especially aware of this fact
because the reading on the instrument will
not tell you whether or not the coils are being
overheated.
 If an ammeter or voltmeter is overloaded, the
pointer will indicate beyond the upper limit of
its scale.
183
Watt Meter
 Wattmeter Overloads:

 In the wattmeter, both the current and potential circuit

may carry such an overload that their insulations burn;
 yet the pointer may be only part of the way up the
scale.
 This is because the position of the pointer depends
upon the power factor of the circuit as well as upon the
voltage and current.
 Therefore, a low power-factor circuit will provide a
very low reading on the wattmeter.

184
Watt Meter
 Wattmeter Overloads:

 The reading will be low, even when the

current and voltage circuits are loaded to the
maximum safe limit.
 The safe rating for each wattmeter is always
distinctly rated, not in watts, but in volts and
amperes.

185
Types of Wattmeter

 1. Dynamometer wattmeter
 2. Induction wattmeter
 3. Electrostatic wattmeter

 We will discuss only above two types

186
1. Dynamometer wattmeter
 Principle:
 When a current carrying
moving coil is placed in a
magnetic field produced by the
current carrying fixed coil, a
mechanical force is exerted on
the coil sides of the moving
coil and deflection takes place.
 In other words, when the field
produced by the current
carrying moving coil (Fr) tries
to come in line with the field
produced by the current
carrying fixed coil (Fm), a
deflecting torque is exerted on
the moving system.

187
1. Dynamometer wattmeter
 When the instrument of this type is used as a wattmeter,
the fixed coil, which is divided into two equal portions in
order to provide uniform field, is employed as current coil
and the moving coil is used as pressure coil i.e. the fixed
coil carries the current flowing through the circuit and the
moving coil carries the current proportional to the voltage
across the circuit.
 A high non-inductive resistance is connected in series with
the moving coil in order to limit the current.
 The magnetic fields of the fixed and moving coils react on
one another causing the moving coil to turn about its axis.
 The movement is controlled by hair-springs which also
lead the current into and out of moving element.

188
1. Dynamometer wattmeter

189
1. Dynamometer wattmeter
 Damping is provided by light aluminum vanes moving
in an air dash pot.
 The pointer is fixed to the moving – coil spindle, and
moves over a suitably calibrated scale.
 Dynamometer type wattmeter has the advantages of
(i) uniform scale and (ii) high degree of accuracy and
disadvantages of (i) errors due to stray field acting
on the moving coil and (ii) serious error due to
inductance of pressure coil (Potential coil) unless
special precautions are taken to reduce this effect.

190
1. Dynamometer wattmeter
 The inductance error
can further be reduced
by connecting an
additional winding
called “compensating
winding” in series with
the pressure (voltage)
coil and so placed that it
produces a field in the
opposite direction to
that of the current coil.

191
 2. Induction wattmeter
The operation of all
induction instruments
depends upon the
production of the torque
due to flux1 and eddy
current produced because
of flux2.

192
193
2. Induction wattmeter

194
 Poly phase Wattmeter
Such an instrument is used to measure
power in a polyphase (3-phase)
system.

It operates on the principle that two

single phase wattmeters are enough to
measure power in 3-phase system.

It is a double element wattmeter

consisting of two separate elements
mounted one above the other in one
and same case.

The moving coils of each unit are

rigidly coupled together axially by a
rod of insulating material. 195
 Poly phase Wattmeter
Since the total deflecting torque action
on the moving system is equal to the
algebraic sum of the torques produced
by the two separate working systems,

hence, the instrument gives the total

power directly.

Error:
In order to avoid mutual interference
between the two units, these are
magnetically shielded from each other
by placing a nickel iron plate between
them.

196
 Poly phase Wattmeter
Connection:
The electrical connection of a poly-phase
wattmeter for measurement of power in a
3-Ø system is identical with those of two
wattmeter method of measuring power in
3-Ø system.

The advantage of such an instrument is

that the total power in circuit is given by
direct indication instead of indirectly by
addition of two wattmeter readings.

The disadvantage of such an instrument

is that it is not as accurate as a single
phase wattmeter.
197
Energy Meter
 Energy meter is an instrument which measures
electrical energy. It is also known as watt-hour (Wh)
meter. It is an integrating device.
 Kw-Hour is also called as “Board of trade (B.O.T) ”
unit in commercial unit.
 Electrical energy is measured in kilo watt-hours
(kWh) by this energy meter.
 The essential difference between an energy
meter and a wattmeter is that the former is fitted
with some type of registration mechanism whereby all
the instantaneous readings of power are summed
over a definite period of time where as the latter
indicate the value at the particular instant when it is
read.
198
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:
 Principle:
 When AC current flows through two suitably
located coils (current coil & potential coil), they
produce rotating magnetic field which is cut by
the metallic disc suspended near to the coils, thus
an e.m.f. is induced in the disc which circulates
eddy currents in it.
 By the interaction of rotating magnetic field &
eddy currents, electromagnetic torque is developed
which causes the disc to rotate.

199
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:
 Construction:
 A single phase induction type energy meter
consists of driving system, moving system,
breaking system and registering system. Each of
the systems is briefly explained below.

200
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:


201
202
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:
 Driving system:

 The construction of the

electro magnet system
is shown in Fig: and it
consists of two
electromagnets, called
“shunt” magnet and
“series” magnet, of
laminated construction.

203
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:
 A coil having large number of
turns of fine wire is wound on
the middle limb of the shunt
magnet. This coil is known as
“pressure or voltage” coil and is
connected across the supply
mains.

 This voltage coil has many turns

and is arranged to be as highly
inductive as possible.

 In other words, the voltage coil

produces a high ratio of
inductance to resistance. This
causes the current, and
therefore the flux, to lag the
supply voltage by nearly 90
degree .
204
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:

 An adjustable copper
shading rings are
provided on the central
limb of the shunt
magnet to make the
phase angle
displacement between
magnetic field set up by
shunt magnet and
supply voltage is
approximately 90
degree.
205
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:
 The copper shading bands
are also called the power
factor compensator or
compensating loop.
 The series electromagnet is
energized by a coil, known
as “current” coil which is
connected in series with the
load so that it carry the load
current. The flux produced
by this magnet is
proportional to, and in phase
with the load current.
206
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:
Moving system:

The moving system

essentially consists of a light
rotating aluminium disk
mounted on a vertical
spindle or shaft.

The shaft that supports the

aluminium disk is connected
by a gear arrangement to the
clock mechanism on the
front of the meter to provide
information that consumed
energy by the load.
207
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:
Moving system:

The time varying (sinusoidal)

fluxes produced by shunt
and series magnet induce
eddy currents in the
aluminium disc.

The interaction between

these two magnetic fields
and eddy currents set up a
driving torque in the disc.

208
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:
Moving system:

The number of rotations

of the disk is therefore
proportional to the
energy consumed by
the load in a certain
time interval and is
commonly measured in
killowatt-hours (Kwh).

209
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:
 Braking system:

 Damping of the disk is

provided by a small
permanent magnet,
located diametrically
opposite to the a.c
magnets.

 The disk passes

between the magnet
gaps.
210
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:
 Braking system:

 The movement of rotating

disc through the magnetic
field crossing the air gap
sets up eddy currents in the
disc that reacts with the
magnetic field and exerts a
braking torque.
 By changing the position of
the brake magnet or
diverting some of the flux
there form, the speed of the
rotating disc can be
controlled.

211
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:
 Registering or
Counting system:

 The registering or
counting system
essentially consists of
gear train, driven either
by worm or pinion gear
on the disc shaft, which
turns pointers that
indicate on dials the
number of times the
disc has turned.
212
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:
 Registering or Counting
system:

 The energy meter thus

determines and adds
together or integrates all the
instantaneous power values
so that total energy used
over a period is thus known.

 Therefore, this type of meter

is also called an “integrating”
meter.

213
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:
 Basic operation
 Induction instruments operate in alternating-current
circuits and they are useful only when the frequency
and the supply voltage are approximately constant.
 The most commonly used technique is the shaded pole
induction watt-hour meter, shown in fig.

214
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Basic operation
 The rotating element is an aluminum disc, and the
torque is produced by the interaction of eddy currents
generated in the disc with the imposed magnetic fields
that are produced by the voltage and current coils of the
energy meter.

215
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Basic operation

216
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Basic operation

217
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Basic operation
 So in all induction instruments we have two
fluxes produce by currents flowing in the
windings of the instrument.
 These fluxes are alternating in nature and so
they induce emfs in a aluminum disc or a
drum provided for the purpose.
 These emfs in turn circulate eddy currents in
the disc.

218
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Basic operation

219
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Basic operation

220
T1 and T2 are opposite in directions.

221
222
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Basic operation

223
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Basic operation

224
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Basic operation

225
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Basic operation

226
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Basic operation
The flux generated by the current coil is in phase with the
current and flux generated by the voltage coil is adjusted to be
exactly in quadrature with the applied voltage by means of the
copper shading ring on the voltage or shunt magnet.
The average torque acting upon the disc

227
228
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Basic operation

229
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Opposing or Brake Torque:

230
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Opposing or Brake Torque:

231
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Opposing or Brake Torque:

232
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Opposing or Brake Torque:

233
234
Lag Adjustment.

235
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Opposing or Brake Torque:
For a given disc and brake magnet, the braking torque varies
with the distance of the poles from the center of the disc.
The maximum braking torque occurs when the distance of the
center of the pole faces from the center of the disc is equal to
83% of the radius of the disc.
A movement of the poles of brake magnet towards the center
of the disc reducing the braking torque (as the distance of brake
magnet reduces from the center of the disc), and vise versa.

236
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Errors in the energy meter
 Assuming the supply voltage and frequency constant, the
induction type energy may have the following errors:

 1) Speed error:

 Due to the incorrect position of the brake magnet, the braking

torque is not correctly developed.
 This can be tested when meter runs at its full load current
alternatively on loads of unity power factor.
 The speed can be adjusted to the correct value by varying the
position of the braking magnet towards the centre of the disc or
away from the centre and the shielding loop.

237
 Unity power factor has a value of 1.0. This
means the current and voltage waveforms
are in phase. This is only possible if the net
load is non-reactive (resistive). If the load is
either capacitively or inductively reactive, the
power factor will be other than unity.

238
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Errors in the energy meter
Continued…

 If the meter runs fast on inductive load and

correctly on non-inductive load, the shielding loop
must be moved towards the disc.
 On the other hand, if the meter runs slow on non-
inductive load, the brake magnet must be moved
away the center of the disc.

239
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Errors in the energy meter
 2) Meter phase error:

 An error due to incorrect adjustment of the

position of shading band results an incorrect
phase displacement between the magnetic flux
and the supply voltage (not in quadrature).
 By adjusting the position of the copper shading
band in the central limb of the shunt magnet this
error can be eliminated.
240
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Errors in the energy meter
 3) Friction error:

 An additional amount of driving torque is required

to compensate this error.
 The two shading bands on the limbs are adjusted
to create this extra torque.
 This adjustment is done at low load (at about 1/4 th
of full load at unity power factor).

241
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Errors in the energy meter
 4) Creep:

 In some meters a slow but continuous rotation is seen

when pressure coil is excited but with no load
current flowing.

 This slow revolution records some energy. This is

called the creep error.

 This slow motion may be due to (a) incorrect friction

compensation, (b) to stray magnetic field (c) for over
voltage across the voltage coil.
242
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Errors in the energy meter
 4) Creep:

 It can be reduced by:

243
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Errors in the energy meter
 4) Creep:

 It can be reduced by:

244
245
Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter: Errors in the energy meter
 5) Temperature effect:

 Energy meters are almost inherently free from errors due

to temperature variations.
 Temperature affects both driving and braking torques
equally (with the increase in temperature the resistance of
the induced-current path in the disc is also increases) and
so produces negligible error.
 A flux level in the brake magnet decreases with increase in
temperature and introduces a small error in the meter
readings. This error is frequently taken as negligible.
246
 Induction type Single Phase Energy
Meter:

One kilowatt-hour is the amount of electric energy required to provide

1,000 watts of power for a period of one hour. (Ten 100-watt light
bulbs left on for one hour consume one kilowatt-hour of electric
energy.)

247
Induction type Single Phase Energy Meter:
Extension of Instrument Range:
 We have seen earlier M.C. instrument’s range can be
extended by properly designed non inductive shunts and
multipliers in cases of ammeter and voltmeter respectively.
 Similarly for MI instruments shunts and multipliers can be
designed for extension of range.
 Sometimes transformers are used in ac systems for the
measurement of the basic quantities such as current,
voltage and power.
 The transformers used in connection with the instruments
for measurement purpose are referred to as Instrument
Transformers.
248
Induction type Single Phase Energy Meter:
Extension of Instrument Range: Continued..
 They are classified as Current Transformer (C.T.) used for
current measurement and potential Transformer (P.T.)
used for voltage measurement.
 These transformers are used not only for extension of the
range of the instrument, but also for isolating the
instrument from a high current or voltage line.
 The advantages of these transformers are
 • Single range instrument can be used to cover a wide range.
 • Indicating instrument can be located at some distance from
the circuit. This is a great advantage particularly
for high voltage situation.

249
Chapter 4 Numerical Examples

 4.1
 A dynamometer wattmeter with its potential
coil connected across the load side reads
230W. If the load voltage is 200V, what power
is being taken by the load? The potential coil
has resistance of 2000 ohm.

250
Chapter 4
 Numerical Examples.
 4.1 Power consumed by the potential coil=
 P=V2
/R=(200) 2
/2000=20W
A dynamometer wattmeter with its potential
coil As
connected
the potentialacross the loadacross
coil is connected side the
reads
load,
230W. If power
so the the load voltage
consumed is wattmeter
by the 200V, what power
is also
is being taken
included in theby thereading.
meter load? The potential coil
has resistance of 2000 ohm.
Power taken by the load=230-20=210W

251
Chapter 4 Numerical Examples

 4.2
 A 5A, 200V meter on full load, unity power
factor test makes 50 revolutions in 360
seconds. If normal disc speed is 500
rev/KWh, what is the %age error?

Ans. No error
as the consume is same.

252
Chapter 4 Numerical Examples

 4.3
 For a 5A, 230V energy meter the number of
revolutions per Kwh is 480. if in a test of full
load , unity power factor, the disk makes 6
revolutions in 32 seconds. Calculate the error
if any?
Ans. 22.5%
meter runs faster

253
Chapter 4 Numerical Examples

 4.4
 The constant of an energy meter is 1400
rev/Kwh. On connecting a load of 5 lamps of
100W each and 6 fans of 80W each, the disc
makes 1200 revolutions in one hour. Find
error if any.
Ans. 9.77%
The meter is slow.

254
Chapter 4 Numerical Examples

 4.5
 The power of a single phase 6.6KV line
drawing a current of 60A is required to be
measured by a wattmeter marked as 220V,
6A. find suitable rating of PT and CT for this
purpose.
Ans.
PT Rating: 30
CT Rating: 10

255
Chapter 4 Numerical Examples

 4.6
 A meter of constant of 500 makes 5
revolutions in 20 seconds. Calculate the load
in Kw.

Ans.
1.818 KW

256
Chapter 4 Numerical Examples

 4.7
 The disc of a metal makes 600 rev/KwH.
When a load of 1 Kw is connected for 12 Hrs,
the disc rotates at a rate of 11 r.p.m. Find the
errors if any?

Ans.
Error= 1.2KwH

257
 Electronic Energy Meter (EEM)
Electronic Energy meter is based on digital micro
technology (DMT).
It uses no moving parts. So EEM is known as “Static
Energy Meter”
Functioning is controlled by a specially designed IC
called ASIC (Application Specified Integrated Circuit)
ASIC are constructed only for specific applications.
Similar ASIC’s are used in Washing Machines, Air
Conditioners, Automobiles, Digital Camera etc. 258
Electronic Energy Meter (EEM)

259
Chapter 5:
Measurement of Resistance
 Measurement of low/medium resistance
 Voltmeter ammeter method
 Wheatstone bridge
 Errors in Wheatstone bridge
 Ohm meter
 Earth tester
 Measurement of high resistance
 Method of measurement of high resistance
 Meggar
 Summary

260
Measurement of low/medium
resistance
 Low Resistance:
 All resistances of 1Ὼ value or below are classified as low
resistance. such as wires, switches, current-sense resistors,
fuses, relays etc.
 Medium Resistance:
 The resistance of the value between 1Ὼ and 100k Ὼ are
classified as medium resistance. Most of the electrical
apparatus have medium resistance.
 High Resistance:
 The resistance of the value above 100 k Ὼ are classified as
high resistance. E.g Heating elements, but the level of
resistance depends on the temperature.

261
Measurement of low/medium
resistance
 The important methods of measuring low/medium
resistance are as given below.

1. Ammeter Voltmeter Method

2. Wheat stone bridge
3. Kelvin Bridge
4. By direct reading Ohm meter

262
Measurement of low/medium
resistance
1. Ammeter Voltmeter
Method
 Voltmeter is connected in
parallel and ammeter in
series with the resistance.

 R= V/I

 Measurement of
This method is very simple, resistance.
but it doesn't give accurate
results.

263
Measurement of low/medium
resistance
2. Wheat stone bridge

 It is very old method of resistance measurement and still

very reliable.
 It works on the comparison, i.e ‘null principle’.
 It gives a high degree of accuracy.
 The bridge consist of 04 resistances.

264
Measurement of low/medium
resistance
2. Wheat stone bridge

 Working Principle:
 A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit
used to measure an unknown
electrical resistance by balancing two legs of
a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the
unknown component.

265
Measurement of low/medium
resistance
2. Wheat stone bridge
 In the figure, Rx is the unknown
resistance to be measured.
 R1,R2,R3 are resistors of known
resistance and the resistance of
R2 is adjustable.
 If the ratio of the two resistances
in the known leg R2/R1 is equal
to the ratio of the two in the
unknown leg Rx/R3 , then the
voltage between the two
midpoints (B and D) will be zero
and no current will flow through
the galvanometer .

266
Measurement of low/medium
resistance
2. Wheat stone bridge

 If the bridge is
unbalanced, the
direction of the current
indicates whether R2
is too high or too low.
R2 is varied until there
is no current through
the galvanometer,
which then reads zero.
267
 Measurement of low/medium
resistance
2. Wheat stone bridge
Voltage drop in R1=voltage drop in R2
Voltage drop in R3=voltage drop in Rx

Same current I1will flow from R1 and R3

and I2 from R2 and Rx.
So I1R1=I2R2
AND I1R3=I2Rx

Dividing both equations,

R1/R3=R2/Rx

268
Measurement of low/medium
resistance
2. Wheat stone bridge

269
Measurement of low/medium
resistance

270
Wheat stone bridge

271
Wheat stone bridge

272
Errors in Wheat stone bridge
 Human error such as finding a balance point,
taking reading and making calculations.
 Thermal junctions in the bridge may induce
error by producing thermo electric emf.
 There is a change of value of the resistance
due to self heating.
 If the sensitivity of the galvanometer is not
sufficient, the balance point will not be exact.
 The error due to resistance of the leads and
contacts.
273
Wheatstone bridge
 A Wheatstone bridge is to be used to
measure a high resistance. The ratio arms of
the bridge are 1000Ὼ and 10Ὼ. The
adjustable arm S has a maximum value of
10000Ὼ. What is the maximum resistance
which can be measured?

Ans. 1 MῺ

274
Ohm meter

Though mechanical ohmmeter (resistance meter)

designs are rarely used today,
having largely been superseded by digital instruments,
their operation is nonetheless interesting
and worthy of study.

275
Ohm meter
 The purpose of an ohmmeter, of course, is to
measure the resistance placed between its leads.
 This resistance reading is indicated through a
mechanical meter movement which operates on
electric current.
 The ohmmeter must then have an internal source of
voltage to create the necessary current to operate the
movement, and also have appropriate ranging
resistors to allow just the right amount of current
through the movement at any given resistance.

276
Ohm meter
 Starting with a simple movement and battery circuit,
let's see how it would function as an ohmmeter:

277
 Ohm meter
 When there is infinite resistance
(no continuity between test
leads), there is zero current
through the meter movement,
and the needle points toward the
far left of the scale.
 In this regard, the ohmmeter
indication is "backwards"
because maximum indication
(infinity) is on the left of the
scale, while voltage and current
meters have zero at the left of
their scales.
278
 Ohm meter
If the test leads of this ohmmeter
are directly shorted together
(measuring zero Ω), the meter
movement will have a maximum
amount of current through it,
limited only by the battery
voltage and the movement's
internal resistance:

279
 Ohm meter
With 9 volts of battery potential
and only 500 Ω of movement
resistance, our circuit current will
be 18 mA, which is far beyond
the full-scale rating of the
movement. Such an excess of
current will likely damage the
meter.

280
Ohm meter
 If full left-of-scale on the meter face represents an
infinite amount of resistance, then full right-of-scale
should represent zero
 We need a way to make it so that the movement just
registers full-scale when the test leads are shorted
together. This is accomplished by adding a series
resistance to the meter's circuit:

281
Ohm meter
 To determine the proper
value for R, we
calculate the total circuit
resistance needed to
limit current to 1 mA
(full-scale deflection on
the movement) with 9
volts of potential from
the battery, then
subtract the
movement's internal
resistance from that
figure:
282
Ohm meter Range:
 In the left side of the
scale we have "infinity"
and on the right side we
have zero.
 this scale is strange
because it goes from
nothing to everything,
rather than from nothing
to a finite value (such
as 10 volts, 1 amp, etc.)

283
Ohm meter Range:
 What value of resistance
between the test leads will
cause exactly 1/2 scale
deflection of the needle?
 If we know that the
movement has a full-scale
rating of 1 mA, then 0.5 mA
(500 µA) must be the value
needed for half-scale
deflection.
 Following our design with the
9 volt battery as a source we
get:

284
Ohm meter Range:
 With an internal
movement resistance of
500 Ω and a series
range resistor of 8.5 kΩ,
this leaves 9 kΩ for an
external (lead-to-lead)
test resistance at 1/2
scale.

285
Ohm meter Range:
 Using Ohm's Law a few
more times, we can
determine the test
resistance value for 1/4
and 3/4 scale deflection
as well:
 1/4 scale deflection
(0.25 mA of meter
current):

286
Ohm meter Range:
 3/4 scale deflection
(0.75 mA of meter
current):

287
Ohm meter Range:
 So, the scale for this
ohmmeter looks
something like this:

288
Ohm meter Drawback:
 Ohmmeters contain internal sources of voltage to
supply power in taking resistance measurements.
 An analog ohmmeter scale is "backwards" from that
of a voltmeter or ammeter, the movement needle
reading zero resistance at full-scale and infinite
resistance at rest.
 Analog ohmmeters also have nonlinear scales.
 Analog ohmmeters are not precision instruments.
 Ohmmeters should never be connected to an
energized circuit (that is, a circuit with its own source
of voltage). Any voltage applied to the test leads of
an ohmmeter will invalidate its reading.
 Reference: http://www.allaboutcircuits.com

289
Megger or Ohmmeter:
 Megger is a portable instrument which is used to
measure insulation resistance of the electrical
machinery or system.
 It can be battery operated or mechanically operated
(hand dc generator) and gives direct reading in ohms.
 For this reason it is also called as ohm meter.
 Onboard ship, different systems are present with
large voltage ratings and therefore Megger comes in
the range of 100V to 5000V.

290
Construction :
 The important construction features of Megger consist of
following parts:

 1) Control and Deflecting coil: They are normally mounted at

right angle to each other and connected parallel to the generator
or the battery. The polarities are such that the torque produced
by them is in opposite direction.

 2) Permanent Magnet: Permanent magnet with north and south

poles to produce magnetic effect for deflection of pointer.

 3) Pointer and scale: A pointer is attached to the coils and end

of the pointer floats on a scale which is in the range from “zero”
to “infinity”. The unit for this is “ohms”.

291
Construction :

 4) D.C generator or battery

connection: Testing voltage is supplied by
hand operated D.C generator for manual
operated Megger and a battery and electronic
voltage charger for automatic type Megger.
 5) Pressure coil and current coil: Provided
for preventing damage to the instrument in
case of low external source resistance.

292
Construction :

293
294
Working:
 The voltage for testing is supplied by a hand
generator incorporated in the instrument or by battery
or electronic voltage charger. It is usually 250V or
500V and is smaller in size.
 - A test volt of 500V D.C is suitable for testing ship’s
equipment operating at 440V A.C. Test voltage of
1000V to 5000V is used onboard for high voltage
system onboard.
 - The current carrying coil (deflecting coil) is
connected in series and carries the current taken by
the circuit under test. The pressure coil (control coil)
is connected across the circuit.

295
Working:
 Current limiting resistors are connected in series with
pressure and current coil to prevent damage in case of
low resistance in external source.

 - In hand generator, the armature is moving in the field of

permanent magnet or vice versa, to generate a test
voltage by electromagnetic induction effect.

 With an increase of potential voltage across the external circuit,

the deflection of the pointer increases; and with an increase of
current, the deflection of pointer decrease so the resultant
torque on the movement is directly proportional to the potential
difference and inversely proportional to the current.

296
Working:
 When the external circuit is open, torque due
to voltage coil will be maximum and the
pointer will read “infinity”.
 When there is short circuit the pointer will
read “0”.

297
Earth Tester
 Earth Resistance Testers are used for
measuring earth electrode resistance, soil
resistance, earth continuity, resistance of
various components etc.
 They are used in Railways, Defense, Utilities,
Power Plants, Geological Surveys and other
Industries.

298
Earth Resistance
 “Earth resistance” is the resistance
of the soil to the passage of electric
current.

 Reference:Book By B.L Thareja

299
Reasons for Earth Resistance
 To provide zero reference for electrical
service.
 To provide a low resistance path to protect
against electric faults.
 To protect equipment for personal safety.


300
Measurement of Earth Resistance:

301
Use of Earth Resistivity.

302
Measurement of Earth resistance by
Voltmeter and Ammeter:

303
Measurement of Earth resistance by
Voltmeter and Ammeter:

304
Measurement of Earth resistance by
Voltmeter and Ammeter:

305
Earth Tester

306
Earth Tester

307
Earth Tester

308
Earth Tester
 Working of Earth Tester

309
Current can produce or speed
up chemical change, this ability
of current is called chemical
effect (shown by dc not by ac).

 Ref:http://www.transtutors.com

310
Earth Tester

311
Summary Chapter-5
 Measurement of low/medium resistance
 Voltmeter ammeter method
 Wheatstone bridge
 Errors in Wheatstone bridge
 Ohm meter
 Earth tester
 Measurement of high resistance
 Method of measurement of high resistance
 Meggar
312
Chapter: 6
Measurement of Inductance and Capacitance
1. Measurement of inductance and capacitance
2. Ammeter and voltmeter method to measure L and C
3. AC bridges
4. Maxwell’s bridge
5. Wein bridge
6. Desauty’s Bridge
7. Shering Bridge
8. LCR Bridge
9. LCR Meter
10. Errors in the Bridge circuits
11. Precautions to reduce errors in bridge circuits
12. Summary
313
1.Measurement of inductance and capacitance

What Basic difference between Resistance,

Inductance and Capacitance?

314
Resistance

 Resistance can be simply defined as

the opposition to current flow in a
circuit. This can be calculated as:
V
 The issue with this formula is that it R 
only applies to a purely resistive I
circuit and often in an a.c. circuit
there are other factors that affect the
current flow.

315
Inductive Reactance
 Inductive reactance is the opposition
to current flow in an inductive circuit.
This causes the current in a circuit to
lag behind the applied voltage. This
can be calculated by using the
formula:

X L 2fL
316
Capacitive reactance
 Capacitive reactance is the
opposition to current flow in a
capacitive circuit. It will cause the
current in the circuit to lead ahead of
the voltage. It can be calculated
from:
1
XC 
2fC
317
1.Measurement of inductance and
capacitance
 The various methods are used for
measuring the value of L and C in a circuit.
A. Voltmeter and Ammeter method
B. Potentiometers
C. AC Bridges
D. Analog and Digital LCR Bridges.

318
1.Measurement of inductance and
capacitance
 Voltmeter and Ammeter method
 This is an approximate method of finding the
value of L and C.
 We find the value of their reactance either
capacitive or inductive.

319
1.Measurement of inductance and
capacitance
 Voltmeter and Ammeter method
 Measurement of L (Inductance):
 Let we have V and A,
 XL=V/A
 But X L 2fL
 So, V/A= X L 2fL

 So L= V/2πfA

L can be calculated easily.

320
1.Measurement of inductance and
capacitance
 Voltmeter and Ammeter method
 Measurement of C (Capacitance):
 Let we have V and A,
 XC=V/A
1
 XC 
But 2fC
 So, V/A=1/2 πfC

 So C= A/2πfV

 C can be calculated easily.

321
3.AC bridges:

322
4.Maxwell’s Bridge:
 The bridge circuit is used for
medium inductance and can be
arranged to yield results of
considerable precision.
 In the two arms, there are two
pure resistances so that for
balance relations, the phase
balance depends on the
remaining two arms.

323
324
Maxwell’s Bridge:

325
Example

326
Advantages:

327
Disadvantages:

328
Wein bridge
 Because the phase shifts of inductors and
capacitors are exactly opposite each other.
 A capacitive impedance can balance out an
inductive impedance if they are located in
opposite legs of a bridge.
 In the simplest implementation, the standard
capacitor (C) and the resistor in parallel with it
are made variable, and both must be
adjusted to achieve balance.

329
Wein bridge

 However, the bridge can be made to work if the

capacitor is fixed (non-variable) and more than one
resistor is made variable (at least the resistor in
parallel with the capacitor, and one of the other two).
 However, in the latter configuration it takes more trial-
and-error adjustment to achieve balance as the
different variable resistors interact in balancing
magnitude and phase.
 Another advantage of using a Maxwell bridge to
measure inductance rather than a symmetrical
inductance bridge is the elimination of measurement
error due to the mutual inductance between the two
inductors.
330
Wein bridge

331
Wein bridge

Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedance of

the arm AB, BC, CD, and DA
respectively.
Let us first find the combined impedance
of arm AB.
Z1 = R1||XC

332
 Wein bridge

Z3 = R3 + jωL3 and Z4 = R4
Balance condition is Z1Z3 = Z2Z4

Or, R1R3+jωL3R1 = R2R4 + jωCR1R2R4

Separating the real and imaginary, we get
R1R3 = R2R4 and L3R1 = CR1R2R4;

L3 = CR2R4
333
5. Maxwell’s Wein bridge

334
Wein bridge

 Advantages:
 The equations are independent of frequency.
 The bridge is very useful for measurement of wide
range of inductance at audio frequency (20Hz to
20KHz)
 This bridge is also used as a feedback circuit in wein
bridge oscillator.
 Disadvantages:
 This requires a variable standard capacitor, which is
very expensive for getting a good accuracy.
 The bridge is suited to measure inductance of coils
having medium Q factor
 The bridge is not suited for high Q values.

335
6.Desauty’s Bridge
 De Sauty Bridge measures an unknown
capacitance in term of a standard
capacitance i.e. comparing
two capacitance’s.
 Two ratio arm of this bridge consist pure
resistor and two consist capacitor where one
is of known value and another is standard
capacitor.

336
6.Desauty’s Bridge

The balance point is

obtained when the
sound in the
headphones is a
minimum.

337
6.Desauty’s Bridge

338
6.Desauty’s Bridge
 Advantages:
It is very simple circuit
 The calculations are also very easy
 Disadvantages:
 It is not possible to obtain zero sound in the headphones
because of phase difference in arms due to capacitor.
 It is impossible to get the balance of the bridge if the
capacitors are not free from the dielectric losses.
 This method is therefore used for air capacitors, which are
more or less loss free.
 The capacitance of a capacitor filled with a dielectric is
greater than it would be in a vacuum.
 In order to use the circuit for the loss capacitors, modified
“Desauty's” bridge is used in which extra resisters are used
in series with C1 and C2.

339
7.Shering Bridge
 A Schering Bridge is a bridge circuit used for
measuring an unknown electrical capacitance
and its dissipation factor.
 The dissipation factor of a capacitor is the
ratio of its resistance to its capacitive
reactance.
 The Schering Bridge is basically a four-arm
alternating-current (AC) bridge circuit whose
measurement depends on balancing the
loads on its arms.

340
7.Shering Bridge
 Figure 1 below shows a diagram of the Schering
Bridge.

341
7.Shering Bridge
 In the Schering Bridge above, the resistance values
of resistors R1 and R2 are known, while the
resistance value of resistor R3 is unknown.
 The capacitance values of C1 and C2 are also
known, while the capacitance of C3 is the value being
measured.
 To measure R3 and C3, the values of C2 and R2 are
fixed, while the values of R1 and C1 are adjusted
until the current through the ammeter between points
A and B becomes zero.
 This happens when the voltages at points A and B
are equal, in which case the bridge is said to be
'balanced'.

342
7.Shering Bridge
 When the bridge is
balanced, Z1/C2 = R2/Z3,
where Z1 is the impedance
of R1 in parallel with C1 and
Z3 is the impedance of R3 in
series with C3.
 In an AC circuit that has a
capacitor, the capacitor
contributes a capacitive
reactance to the impedance.
 The capacitive reactance of
a capacitor C is 1/2πfC.

343
7.Shering Bridge
 As such,
 Z1 = R1/[2πfC1((1/2πfC1) + R1)]
= R1/(1 + 2πfC1R1)
 Z3 = 1/2πfC3 + R3.
 Thus, when the bridge is balanced:

 2πfC2R1/(1+2πfC1R1) = R2/(1/2πfC3 + R3); or

 2πfC2(1/2πfC3 + R3) = (R2/R1)(1+2πfC1R1); or
 C2/C3 + 2πfC2R3 = R2/R1 + 2πfC1R2.

344
7.Shering Bridge
 When the bridge is balanced, the negative and positive
reactive components are equal and cancel out, so
 2πfC2R3 = 2πfC1R2 or
 R3 = C1R2 / C2.
 Similarly, when the bridge is balanced, the purely resistive
components are equal, so
 C2/C3 = R2/R1 or
 C3 = R1C2 / R2.
 Note that the balancing of a Schering Bridge is
independent of frequency.

 Reference: http://www.ecelab.com/schering-bridge.htm

345
Hay’s Bridge:
 A Hay Bridge is an AC bridge circuit used for
measuring an unknown inductance by
balancing the loads of its four arms.
 one of which contains the unknown
inductance.
 One of the arms of a Hay Bridge has a
capacitor of known characteristics, which is
the principal component used for determining
the unknown inductance value.

346
Hay’s Bridge:
 Figure 1 below shows a diagram of the Hay Bridge.

347
Hay’s Bridge:
 As shown in Figure 1, one arm of the
Hay bridge consists of a capacitor in
series with a resistor (C1 and R2)
 and another arm consists of an inductor
L1 in series with a resistor (L1 and R4).
 The other two arms simply contain a
resistor each (R1 and R3).
 The values of R1and R3 are known,
and R2 and C1 are both adjustable.
 The unknown values are those of L1
and R4.

348
Hay’s Bridge:
 When the Hay Bridge is
balanced, it follows that
 Z1/R1 = R3/Z2
 wherein Z1 is the impedance of
the arm containing C1 and R2
while Z2 is the impedance of the
arm containing L1 and R4.
Thus,
 Z1 = R2 + 1/(2πfC) while Z2 =
R4 + 2πfL1.

349
Hay’s Bridge:
 Mathematically, when the bridge is
balanced,
 [R2 + 1/(2πfC1)] / R1 = R3 / [R4 + 2πfL1];
or
 [R4 + 2πfL1] = R3R1 / [R2 + 1/(2πfC1)]; or
 R3R1 = R2R4 + 2πfL1R2 + R4/2πfC1 +
L1/C1.

 When the bridge is balanced, the reactive
components are equal, so
 2πfL1R2 = R4/2πfC1, or R4 =
(2πf)2L1R2C1.

350
Hay’s Bridge:
 Substituting R4, one comes up with the
following equation:
 R3R1 = (R2+1/2πfC1)((2πf)2L1R2C1) +
2πfL1R2 + L1/C1; or
 L1 = R3R1C1 / (2πf)2R22C12 + 4πfC1R2 + 1);
or
 L1 = R3R1C1 / [1 + (2πfR2C1)2] after dropping
the reactive components of the equation since
the bridge is balanced.

 Thus, the equations for L1 and R4 for the Hay
Bridge in Figure 1 when it is balanced are:
 L1 = R3R1C1 / [1 + (2πfR2C1)2]; and
 R4 = (2πfC1)2R2R3R1 / [1 + (2πfR2C1)2]

 Note that the balancing of a Hay Bridge is
frequency-dependent.

351
8. LCR Bridge
 A simple circuit for the measurement of
resistance, capacitance and inductance.
 It permits the operator to set up a number of
different bridge circuits simply by plugging
standard and unknown units into the proper
terminals.

352
8. LCR Bridge Contd…

LCR Bridge 353

8. LCR Bridge Contd…
 By proper arrangements of the bridge arms,
resistance, capacitance and inductance can
be measured as shown.

354
8. LCR Bridge Contd…

355
8. LCR Bridge Contd…

356
8. LCR Bridge Contd…

357
Errors in the Bridge Circuits
 When analysis the ac bridges, it is observed that the effect of
low frequencies may be neglected but higher frequencies
changes the behavior of the bridge considerably. the various
errors in ac bridges are:
 Errors due to the stray fields.
 The errors due to the stray field may be reduced by
providing the electrostatic shield to the circuit.
 Leakage errors.
 It is because of the insulation failure of different components,
and leakage of current may occur between the arms. To
eliminate this the variable component may be mounted on
insulating stands.
358
Errors in the Bridge Circuits
(Contd…)
 Eddy current error
Eddy current may be induced in the resisters and inductors, for this
conducting materials are avoided near the bridge circuits.
 Residual Error
 The resisters are assumed as non inductive and inductors are
assumed as non resistive, but practically they contains some
inherent values of inductance and resistance respectively. They
will cause error. The error may be reduced by using high quality
components.
 Frequency and waveform error
 The frequency of the supply effects the of the inductance and
capacitance of the bridge. Similarly presence of harmonic in the
waveform is also important for the same reason. Moreover the
bridge can not be simultaneously balanced for the fundamental
frequency and harmonics present in the wave form.
359
Short Questions:
1. What are the various applications of AC bridges?
2. Explain the basic bridge. Show how resistance can be measured.?
3. With the help of the sketch, explain the Maxwell bridge?
4. Explain Desauty's bridge for measurement of capacitance?
5. Name any two bridges for measurement of inductance and
capacitance?
6. What are the precautions to be observed while handling the ac
bridges?
7. What are the detectors and supply sourced used in ac bridges?
8. How a Wein bridge can be used to determine the frequency of the
supply.
9. What do you mean by Q factor of a coil?
10. The calculations of ac bridge is different than dc bridge. Explain
how?
360
Chapter: 6 Measurement of Inductance and Capacitance

Summary

1. Measurement of inductance and capacitance

2. Ammeter and voltmeter method to measure L and C
3. AC bridges
4. Maxwell’s bridge
5. Wein bridge
6. Desauty’s Bridge
7. Shering Bridge
8. LCR Bridge
9. LCR Meter
10. Errors in the Bridge circuits
11. Precautions to reduce errors in bridge circuits
361
Chapter:7 Oscilloscopes
1. Introduction
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?
3. Oscilloscope Block Diagram
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
5. Setting Up
6. The Controls
7. Cathode Ray Tube
8. Delay Line
9. Summary
362
1.Introduction
 What Can You Do With Your Oscilloscope?
 Oscilloscopes are used by everyone from television repair
technicians to physicists.
 They are indispensable for anyone designing or repairing
electronic equipment.
 The usefulness of an oscilloscope is not limited to the
world of electronics.
 With the proper transducer, an oscilloscope can measure
all kinds of phenomena.
 An automotive engineer uses an oscilloscope to measure
engine vibrations.
 A medical researcher uses an oscilloscope to measure
brain waves.
363
1.Introduction
 Analog & Digital
 Electronic equipment can be divided into two types: analog and
digital.
 Analog equipment works with continuously variable voltages, while
digital equipment works with discrete binary numbers that may
represent voltage samples.
 For example, a conventional phonograph turntable is an analog device;
a compact disc player is a digital device.
 Oscilloscopes also come in analog and digital types.
 An analog oscilloscope works by directly applying a voltage being
measured to an electron beam moving across the oscilloscope screen.
 The voltage deflects the beam up and down proportionally, tracing the
waveform on the screen. This gives an immediate picture of the
waveform.

364
1.Introduction
 Analog & Digital

365
1.Introduction
 Analog & Digital
 In contrast, a digital oscilloscope samples the waveform
and uses an analog-to-digital converter (or ADC) to
convert the voltage being measured into digital
information.
 It then uses this digital information to reconstruct the
waveform on the screen.
 For many applications either an analog or digital
oscilloscope will do.
 However, each type does possess some unique
characteristics making it more or less suitable for specific
tasks.
366
1.Introduction
 Analog & Digital
 People often prefer analog oscilloscopes when it is
important to display rapidly varying signals in "real time"
(or as they occur).
 Digital oscilloscopes allow you to capture and view events
that may happen only once.
 They can process the digital waveform data or send the
data to a computer for processing.
 Also, they can store the digital waveform data for later
viewing and printing.

367
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

1. To better understand the oscilloscope controls, you need

to know a little more about how oscilloscopes display a
signal.
2. Analog oscilloscopes work somewhat differently than
digital oscilloscopes.
3. However, several of the internal systems are similar.
4. Analog oscilloscopes are somewhat simpler in concept
and are described first, followed by a description of
digital oscilloscopes in the next slides.

368
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

Analog Oscilloscopes
1. When you connect an oscilloscope probe to a circuit, the
voltage signal travels through the probe to the vertical
system of the oscilloscope.
2. Following Figure is a simple block diagram that shows
how an analog oscilloscope displays a measured signal.

369
 2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

Analog Oscilloscopes (Contd….)

Analog Oscilloscope Block 370

Diagram
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

Analog Oscilloscopes (Contd….)

 Depending on how you set the vertical scale (volts/div
control), an attenuator reduces the signal voltage or an
amplifier increases the signal voltage.
 Next, the signal travels directly to the vertical deflection
plates of the cathode ray tube (CRT).
 Voltage applied to these deflection plates causes a
glowing dot to move. (An electron beam hitting phosphor
inside the CRT creates the glowing dot.)
 A positive voltage causes the dot to move up while a
negative voltage causes the dot to move down.
371
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

Cathode ray tube essentially consists of an electron gun for

producing a stream of electrons, focusing and accelerating
anodes for producing a narrow and sharply focused electron
beam, horizontal and vertical deflection plates for controlling
the beam path and an evacuated glass envelope with
phosphorescent screen giving bright spot when struck by a
high velocity electron beam. 372
Working of CRT

373
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

Analog Oscilloscopes (Contd….)

 Depending on how you set the vertical scale (volts/div
control), an attenuator reduces the signal voltage or an
amplifier increases the signal voltage.
 Next, the signal travels directly to the vertical deflection
plates of the cathode ray tube (CRT).
 Voltage applied to these deflection plates causes a
glowing dot to move. (An electron beam hitting phosphor
inside the CRT creates the glowing dot.)
 A positive voltage causes the dot to move up while a
negative voltage causes the dot to move down.
374
Triggering:
 An oscilloscope’s trigger function is important to achieve
clear signal characterization, as it synchronizes the
horizontal sweep of the oscilloscope to the proper point of
the signal. The trigger control enables users to stabilize
repetitive waveforms as well as capture single-shot
waveforms. By repeatedly displaying similar portion of the
input signal, the trigger makes repetitive waveform look
static.

375
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?
Analog Oscilloscopes (Contd….)
1. The signal also travels to the trigger system to start or
trigger a "horizontal sweep."
2. Horizontal sweep is a term referring to the action of the
horizontal system causing the glowing dot to move
across the screen.
3. Triggering the horizontal system causes the horizontal
time base to move the glowing dot across the screen from
left to right within a specific time interval.
4. Many sweeps in rapid sequence cause the movement of
the glowing dot to blend into a solid line.
5. At higher speeds, the dot may sweep across the screen up
to 500,000 times each second.

376
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

Analog Oscilloscopes (Contd….)

1. Together, the horizontal sweeping action and the vertical deflection
action traces a graph of the signal on the screen. The trigger is
necessary to stabilize a repeating signal. It ensures that the sweep
begins at the same point of a repeating signal, resulting in a clear
picture as shown in following figure.

377
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?
Analog Oscilloscopes (Contd….)
 In conclusion, to use an analog oscilloscope, you need to adjust three
basic settings to accommodate an incoming signal:
 The attenuation or amplification of the signal. Use the
volts/div control to adjust the amplitude of the signal before it is
applied to the vertical deflection plates.
 The time base. Use the sec/div control to set the amount of time
per division represented horizontally across the screen.
 The triggering of the oscilloscope. Use the trigger level to
stabilize a repeating signal, as well as triggering on a single
event.
 Also, adjusting the focus and intensity controls enables you to create
a sharp, visible display.

378
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

Digital Oscilloscopes
 Some of the systems that make up digital oscilloscopes
are the same as those in analog oscilloscopes; however,
digital oscilloscopes contain additional data processing
systems.
 With the added systems, the digital oscilloscope collects
data for the entire waveform and then displays it.
 When you attach a digital oscilloscope probe to a circuit,
the vertical system adjusts the amplitude of the signal,
just as in the analog oscilloscope.

379
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?
Digital Oscilloscopes (Contd….)
 Next, the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) in
the acquisition system samples the signal at
discrete points in time and converts the signal's
voltage at these points to digital values called
sample points.
 The horizontal system's sample clock determines
how often the ADC takes a sample.
 The rate at which the clock "ticks" is called the
sample rate and is measured in samples per
second.
 The sample points from the ADC are stored in
memory as waveform points. 380
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

Digital Oscilloscopes (Contd….)

 More than one sample point may make up one
waveform point.
 Together, the waveform points make up one
waveform record.
 The number of waveform points used to make a
waveform record is called the record length.
 The trigger system determines the start and stop
points of the record.
 The display receives these record points after
being stored in memory.
381
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

Digital Oscilloscopes (Contd….)

 Depending on the capabilities of your oscilloscope,
additional processing of the sample points may take
place, enhancing the display.
 Pretrigger may be available, allowing you to see events
before the trigger point.

382
 2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

Digital Oscilloscopes (Contd….)

383

Digital Oscilloscope Block Diagram

2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

Digital Oscilloscopes (Contd….)

 Fundamentally, with a digital oscilloscope as with an analog
oscilloscope, you need to adjust the vertical, horizontal, and trigger
settings to take a measurement.
 Sampling Methods
 The sampling method tells the digital oscilloscope how
to collect sample points.
 For slowly changing signals, a digital oscilloscope easily
collects more than enough sample points to construct an
accurate picture.
 However, for faster signals, (how fast depends on the
oscilloscope's maximum sample rate) the oscilloscope
cannot collect enough samples.
384
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

Digital Oscilloscopes (Contd….)

 The digital oscilloscope can do two things:
 It can collect a few sample points of the signal in
a single pass (in real-time sampling mode) and
then use interpolation. Interpolation is a
processing technique to estimate what the
waveform looks like based on a few points.
 It can build a picture of the waveform over time,
as long as the signal repeats itself (equivalent-
time sampling mode).
385
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

Digital Oscilloscopes (Contd….)

 Sampling Methods

386
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
 Learning a new skill often involves learning a new
vocabulary. This idea holds true for learning how to use an
oscilloscope. This section describes some useful
measurement and oscilloscope performance terms.

387
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
 Measurement Terms
 The generic term for a pattern that repeats over time is a wave –
 An oscilloscope measures voltage waves. One cycle of a wave is
the portion of the wave that repeats.
 A waveform is a graphic representation of a wave. A voltage
waveform shows time on the horizontal axis and voltage on the
vertical axis.
 Waveform shapes tell you a great deal about a signal. Any time
you see a change in the height of the waveform, you know the
voltage has changed.
 Straight diagonal lines mean a linear change - rise or fall of
voltage at a steady rate.
 Sharp angles on a waveform mean sudden change.

388
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
 Measurement Terms (Contd…)
 Figure shows below common waveforms.

389
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
 Waveform Measurements in Oscilloscope
 You use many terms to describe the types of
measurements that you take with your oscilloscope. This
section describes some of the most common measurements
and terms.
 1.Frequency and Period
 If a signal repeats, it has a frequency. The frequency is
measured in Hertz (Hz) and equals the number of times the
signal repeats itself in one second (the cycles per second). A
repeating signal also has a period - this is the amount of time
it takes the signal to complete one cycle. Period and
frequency are reciprocals of each other.
390
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
 Waveform Measurements in Oscilloscope
 Frequency and Period

391
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
 Waveform Measurements in Oscilloscope
 2.Voltage
 Voltage is the amount of electric potential (a kind of signal
strength) between two points in a circuit.
 Usually one of these points is ground (zero volts) but not
always - you may want to measure the voltage from the
maximum peak to the minimum peak of a waveform,
referred to at the peak-to-peak voltage.
 The word amplitude commonly refers to the maximum
voltage of a signal measured from ground or zero volts.

392
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
 Waveform Measurements in Oscilloscope
 Voltage
 The waveform shown in Figure 8 has an amplitude of one
volt and a peak-to-peak voltage of two volts.

393
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
 Waveform Measurements in Oscilloscope
 3.Phase
 Phase is best explained by looking at a sine wave.
 Sine waves are based on circular motion and a circle has 360
degrees.
 Using degrees, you can refer to the phase angle of a sine
wave when you want to describe how much of the period has
elapsed.
 Phase shift describes the difference in timing between two
otherwise similar signals.

394
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
 Waveform Measurements in Oscilloscope
 Phase
 In following figure, the waveform labeled "current" is said to be
90 degree out of phase with the waveform labeled "voltage,"
 since the waves reach similar points in their cycles exactly 1/4 of a
cycle apart (360 degrees/4 = 90 degrees). Phase shifts are common
in electronics.

395
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
 Performance Terms
 The terms described in this section may come up in your
discussions about oscilloscope performance. Understanding these
terms will help you evaluate and compare your oscilloscope with
other models.
 1.Bandwidth
 The bandwidth specification tells you the frequency range the
oscilloscope accurately measures.
 2.Rise Time
 Rise time is another way of describing the useful frequency range
of an oscilloscope. Rise time may be a more appropriate
performance consideration when you expect to measure pulses and
steps. An oscilloscope cannot accurately display pulses with rise
times faster than the specified rise time of the oscilloscope.

396
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
 Performance Terms (Contd…)
 3.Vertical Sensitivity
 The vertical sensitivity indicates how much the vertical
amplifier can amplify a weak signal. Vertical sensitivity is
usually given in milli volts (mV) per division.
 The smallest voltage a general purpose oscilloscope can
detect is typically about 2 mV per vertical screen division.
 4.Sweep Speed
 For analog oscilloscopes, this specification indicates how
fast the trace can sweep across the screen, allowing you to
see fine details. The fastest sweep speed of an oscilloscope is
usually given in nanoseconds/div.
397
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
 Performance Terms (Contd…)
 5.Gain Accuracy
 The gain accuracy indicates how accurately the vertical
system attenuates or amplifies a signal. This is usually listed
as a percentage error.
 6.Time Base or Horizontal Accuracy
 The time base or horizontal accuracy indicates how
accurately the horizontal system displays the timing of a
signal. This is usually listed as a percentage error.

398
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
 Performance Terms (Contd…)
 7.Sample Rate
 On digital oscilloscopes, the sampling rate indicates how many
samples per second the ADC (and therefore the oscilloscope) can
acquire. Maximum sample rates are usually given in mega samples
per second (MS/s). Typically, the sample rate changes with
changes made to the sec/div control to maintain a constant number
of waveform points in the waveform record.
 8.ADC Resolution (Or Vertical Resolution)
 The resolution, in bits, of the ADC (and therefore the digital
oscilloscope) indicates how precisely it can turn input voltages
into digital values. Calculation techniques can improve the
effective resolution.

399
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
 Performance Terms (Contd…)
 9.Record Length
 The record length of a digital oscilloscope indicates how
many waveform points the oscilloscope is able to acquire for
one waveform record. Some digital oscilloscopes let you
adjust the record length. The maximum record length
depends on the amount of memory in your oscilloscope.

400
5. Setting Up
 Setting the controls of Oscilloscope
 After plugging in the oscilloscope, take a look at the front
panel. It is divided into three main sections labeled
Vertical, Horizontal, and Trigger.
 Your oscilloscope may have other sections, depending on
the model and type (analog or digital).
 Notice the input connectors on your oscilloscope. This is
where you attach probes.
 Most oscilloscopes have at least two input channels and
each channel can display a waveform on the screen.
Multiple channels are handy for comparing waveforms.
401
5. Setting Up (Contd…)
 Setting the controls of Oscilloscope (Contd…)

402
5. Setting Up (Contd…)
 Setting the controls of Oscilloscope (Contd…)
 Some oscilloscopes have an AUTOSET or PRESET button that sets
up the controls in one step to accommodate a signal. If your
oscilloscope does not have this feature, it is helpful to set the controls
to standard positions before taking measurements.
 Standard positions include the following:
 Set the oscilloscope to display channel 1
 Set the volts/division scale to a mid-range position
 Turn off the variable volts/division
 Turn off all magnification settings
 Set the channel 1 input coupling to DC
 Set the trigger mode to auto
 Set the trigger source to channel 1
 Turn trigger holdoff to minimum or off
 Set the intensity control to a nominal viewing level
 Adjust the focus control for a sharp display
403
6. The Controls
 Display Controls
 Display systems vary between analog and digital
oscilloscopes. Common controls include:
 An intensity control to adjust the brightness of the
waveform. As you increase the sweep speed of an analog
oscilloscope, you need to increase the intensity level.
 A focus control to adjust the sharpness of the waveform.
Digital oscilloscopes may not have a focus control.
 A trace rotation control to align the waveform trace with
the screen's horizontal axis. The position of your
oscilloscope in the earth's magnetic field affects waveform
alignment. Digital oscilloscopes may not have a trace
rotation control.
404
6. The Controls
 Vertical Controls
 Use the vertical controls to position and scale the waveform vertically.
 Position and Volts per Division
 The vertical position control lets you move the waveform up or
down to exactly where you want it on the screen.
 Input Coupling
 Coupling means the method used to connect an electrical signal
from one circuit to another. In this case, the input coupling is the
connection from your test circuit to the oscilloscope. The coupling
can be set to DC, AC, or ground. DC coupling shows all of an
input signal. AC coupling blocks the DC component of a signal so
that you see the waveform centered at zero volts.

405
6. The Controls
 Input Coupling

406
6. The Controls
Input Coupling
 The ground setting disconnects the input signal from the
vertical system, which lets you see where zero volts is on
the screen. With grounded input coupling and auto trigger
mode, you see a horizontal line on the screen that
represents zero volts.
Bandwidth Limit
Most oscilloscopes have a circuit that limits the bandwidth
of the oscilloscope. By limiting the bandwidth, you reduce
the noise that sometimes appears on the displayed
waveform, providing you with a more defined signal
display.
407
6. The Controls
 Vertical Controls (Contd…)
 Channel Invert
 Most oscilloscopes have an invert function that allows you to
display a signal "upside-down." That is, with low voltage at the
top of the screen and high voltage at the bottom.
 Math Operations
 Your oscilloscope may also have operations to allow you to add
waveforms together, creating a new waveform display. Analog
oscilloscopes combine the signals while digital oscilloscopes
mathematically create new waveforms. Subtracting waveforms is
another math operation. Subtraction with analog oscilloscopes is
possible by using the channel invert function on one signal and
then use the add operation. Digital oscilloscopes typically have a
subtraction operation available. Following Figure illustrates a third
waveform created by adding two different signals together.

408
6. The Controls
 Horizontal Controls
 Use the horizontal controls to position and scale the waveform
horizontally.
 Position and Seconds per Division
 The horizontal position control moves the waveform from left and
right to exactly where you want it on the screen.
 Time Base Selections
 To see events more clearly or even see events not visible with just
the main time base sweep.
 Trigger Position
 It actually represents "the horizontal position of the trigger in
the waveform record." Horizontal trigger position control is
only available on digital oscilloscopes. Varying the
horizontal trigger position allows you to capture what a
signal did before a trigger event (called pre trigger viewing).
409
6. The Controls
 Horizontal Controls (Contd…)
 Magnification
 Oscilloscope may have special horizontal magnification
settings that let you display a magnified section of the
waveform on-screen.
 XY Mode
 Most oscilloscopes have the capability of displaying a
second channel signal along the X-axis (instead of time).
This is called XY mode.

410
 6. The Controls
 Trigger Controls
 The trigger controls let you stabilize repeating waveforms
and capture single-shot waveforms

Reference: http://www.hobbyprojects.com 411

7. CRT

412
CRT (Contd…)

413
CRT (Contd…)
 A CRT works by sweeping an electron beam of varying intensity
across a phosphor-coated screen. The basic components of the CRT
are described below:
 Electron Gun -- The electron gun, which consists of the
cathode, choke, accelerator, and lensing region, is the
device which generates and focuses the electron beam used
to project an image on the phosphor screen.
 Cathode -- The cathode is a grounded metal plate that is
super-heated so that electrons are literally jumping off the
surface.
 Accelerator Plate -- This metal ring is held at a large,
positive voltage and is used to "grab" loose electrons from
the cathode and hurl them forwards into the lensing
chamber (towards the right in the diagram).

414
CRT (Contd…)
 Choke -- This metal ring is located between the cathode and
accelerator plate and held at a slightly negative charge. The
electric fields from the choke help columnate the electrons; they
also can be used to quickly modulate the number of electrons in
the beam and, thus, the brightness or intensity of the picture.
 Lensing Region -- The lensing region consists of two
adjacent metal tubes that are located just after the accelerator.
The electrons that have jumped off the cathode begin to focus.
Ideally, the focal point will occur at the point when the beam
strikes the display, thereby providing pinpoint resolution on the
screen. The last metal tube of the lensing chamber is held at the
highest potential of all the electron gun components so that
exiting electrons have a very high forward velocity.

415
CRT (Contd…)
 Phosphor Screen –
 If all works well, a pinpoint electron beam strikes
the screen with the appropriate intensity and
causes the phosphor to fluoresce.
 The intensity modulation is synchronized with the
horizontal and vertical retraces so that one frame
of video is displayed. The process repeats itself
rapidly (24 frames/second for analog television)
so that the moving scene appears seamless.

416
8.Delay Line
 The delay line is used to delay the incoming signal vertical
information and sync it with the horizontal.
 In the vertical signal path, before the delay line, there is typically a
trigger pick-off which supplies an undelayed copy of the vertical
signal to the trigger and sweep circuitry.
 Trigger and sweep circuitry need about 60ns to react when presented
with the trigger event.
 Without a delay line, the trigger event would already have come and
gone before the scope can trigger and sweep.
 By sending the input signal through a delay line, the scope will have
triggered and begun sweeping by the time the trigger event emerges
from the delay line.
 Thus, the trigger event is drawn on the screen where the operator can
see it, photograph it, or record it by other means.
417
Chapter:7 Oscilloscopes

Summary
1. Introduction
2. How Does an Oscilloscope Work?
3. Oscilloscope Block Diagram
4. Oscilloscope Terminology
5. Setting Up
6. The Controls
7. Cathode Ray Tube
8. Delay Line

418
Chapter: 8
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
1. Classifications of Transducers
2. Advantages of electrical transducers
3. Requirement of transducers
4. Classification of electrical transducers
5. Resistance(wire) strain gauges
6. Semiconductor strain gauges
7. Capacitive transducers
8. Linear variable differential transformer
9. Hall effect transducer
10. Resistance thermometer
11. Thermocouple transducer
12. Piezoelectric transducers


419
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Introduction:
 A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy
to another.
 Energy types include (but are not limited to) electrical,
mechanical, electromagnetic (including light), chemical,
acoustic or thermal energy.
 While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a
sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can be
considered a transducer.
 Transducers are widely used in measuring instruments.
 They are used to measure non electrical quantities like
pressure, force, velocity, ph value, temperature, light
intensity etc. 420
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Classification/Applications of
Transducers:
 Electromagnetic Transducers:
Antenna – converts propagating electromagnetic waves to
and from conducted electrical signals
 Magnetic cartridge – converts relative physical motion to
and from electrical signals
 Tape head, Disk read-and-write head - converts magnetic
fields on a magnetic medium to and from electrical signals
 Hall effect sensor – converts a magnetic field level into an
electrical signal
 Electrochemical Transducers :
 pH probes
 Hydrogen sensor
421
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Classification/Applications of
Transducers:
 Electromechanical (electromechanical output devices are
generically called actuators):
 Galvanometer
 Rotary motor, linear motor
 Vibration powered generator
 Potentiometer
 Accelerometer
 Strain gauge
 Air flow sensor

422
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Classification/Applications of
Transducers:
 Electroacoustic Transducers:
 Loudspeaker, earphone – converts electrical signals into sound
(amplified signal → magnetic field → motion → air pressure)
 Microphone – converts sound into an electrical signal (air pressure
→ motion of conductor/coil → magnetic field → electrical signal)
 Pickup (music technology) – converts motion of metal strings into
an electrical signal (magnetism → electrical signal)
 Tactile transducer – converts electrical signal into vibration
( electrical signal → vibration)
 Piezoelectric crystal – converts deformations of solid-state
crystals (vibrations) to and from electrical signals

423
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Classification/Applications of
Transducers:
 Electro-optical (Photoelectric):
 Fluorescent lamp – converts electrical power into incoherent light
 Incandescent lamp – converts electrical power into incoherent
light
 Light-Emitting Diode – converts electrical power into incoherent
light
 Laser Diode – converts electrical power into coherent light

• Thermoelectric:
• Resistance temperature detector (RTD) - converts temperature into
an electrical resistance signal
• Thermocouple - converts relative temperatures of metallic
junctions to electrical voltage

424
 Reference:wikipedia.org
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Advantages of Electrical Transducers:
 The following are the advantages of Electrical Transducer Elements

 1. Amplification or attenuation may be easily obtained.

 2. Mass-inertia effects are minimized.
 3. The effects of friction are minimized.
 4. An output with sufficient power for control may be provided.
 5. Remote indication or recording is feasible.
 6. the use of I.Cs has brought a revolution in the field of
instrumentation.
 7. the electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed.

425
 Describe elements and requirements of
transducers?

426
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Requirement of Transducers:
 A transducer may be thought of consisting of two
closely related elements (Fig. 1).

427
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Requirement of Transducers:
 1. Sensing or Detecting Element. This element senses
detects the physical quantity under measurement.
 2. Transduction Element. This element transfers the
output of the sensing element into, an electrical output.

 In addition, a transducer may have amplifiers, power

supply, calibrated scale, etc.

428
Transducer’s Transfer Efficiency:
 Transfer Efficiency:

 The sensed input Iin and the transduced analogous

form, Iout can be related as Iout = f (Iin) and transfer
efficiency = Iout / Iin is < 1
 Transfer efficiency will always be less than unity,
because of the losses in sensing and processing the
input. In measurements, a transfer efficiency as
high as possible is desired for accurate results.

429
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Requirement of Transducers:
 (b) Requirements. The transducers should have the
following requirements:
 1. Mechanical Ruggedness. The transducer should be
mechanically rugged. It should be able to withstand the
working conditions and mechanical strains.
 2. Linear Output / Input Characteristic. The transducers
should have linear output/input characteristic.
 3. Reliability. The results of the transducers should be
reliable. The result should also be stable and should not
change with temperature and other changes.

430
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Requirement of Transducers:
 4. Good Response. If the input to the transducer varies
with time (in few cases, it does) the transducers should
have good response to the variations.
 5. Low Noise. The noise / signal ratio of the transducers
should be low so that its output can be directly measured
with sufficient accuracy.

431
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Classifications of Electrical Transducers:
 They can be classified as:
 A) Primary Transducers
 B) Secondary Transducers

 The primary transducer basically senses and sends the signal without
any modification, like a displacement as a result of measurement of
displacement, force, pressure, temperature, etc. This displacement is
amplified in the second stage and used to indicate the reading in the
third stage.
 A secondary transducer, works subsequent to a primary transducer
receiving the input from it. For example, ????????

432
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Classifications of Electrical Transducers:

 C) Analog and Digital Transducers:

 Digital:
 Converts I/p into an electrical o/p in the form of pulses

 Analog:
 convert I/p quantity into an analog o/p
 Analog o/p- a continuous fn. Of time
 E.g. Strain gauge, thermocouple.

433
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Classifications of Electrical Transducers:

 D) Active and Passive Transducers:

 Based on the input circuitry adopted and method of operation,
the Electrical detector transducers can also be classified as
active type and passive type.
 ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS:

 Active transducers are those, which are self-powered, hence

require no external source of energy.
 For example, a piezoelectric accelerometer does not require any
external source of energy, because it works on its own energy.
Main advantage of this type is that its circuit design is simpler.

434
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Classifications of Electrical Transducers:
 PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS:

 Passive transducers are those which require an external source

of energy for their operation. For example, a simple bonded
wire strain gage using resistance bridge requires an auxiliary
source of energy.
 Transducers in which electrical parameters i.e. resistance,
inductance or capacitance change with change in input signal
are called the passive transducers.

435
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Classifications of Electrical Transducers:

 It can be seen from the list that, most mechanical sensors

transduce the inputs to displacement, while electrical
sensors transduce displacement to
voltage/current/resistance change.
 In practice, the mechanical elements are used as primary
transducers, while electrical elements are used as
secondary transducers.

436
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Resistance(wire) strain gauges

 When external forces are applied to a stationary object,

stress and strain are the result.
 Stress is defined as the object's internal resisting forces,
and strain is defined as the displacement and deformation
that occur.

437
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Resistance(wire) strain gauges
For a uniform distribution of internal resisting forces, stress can be
calculated (Figure 2-1) by dividing the force (F) applied by the unit
area (A):

438
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Resistance(wire) strain gauges

 Strain may be compressive or stretched and is typically

measured by strain gages.
 It was Lord Kelvin who first reported in 1856 that metallic
conductors subjected to mechanical strain exhibit a change
in their electrical resistance. This phenomenon was first
put to practical use in the 1930s.

Lord Kelvin of Scotland

(1824 - 1907) 439
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Resistance(wire) strain gauges

 If a wire is held under tension, it gets slightly longer and

its cross-sectional area is reduced.
 This changes its resistance (R) in proportion to the strain
sensitivity (S) of the wire's resistance.
 When a strain is introduced, the strain sensitivity, which is
also called the gage factor (GF), is given by:
 *since

440
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Resistance(wire) strain gauges

 Strain gauges are frequently used in

mechanical engineering research and
development to measure the stresses generated
by machinery.
 Aircraft component testing is one area of
application.

441
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Resistance(wire) strain gauges

 The electrical resistance of a conductor (wire) is

given by:

442
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Types of Resistance(wire) strain gauges

 1.Bonded wire strain gauge

 Gages were originally made of wire, but are now typically
etched from thin foil.
 The wire or foil forms a pattern of parallel elements and is
bonded to a non-conducting carrier or backing.
 The carrier may be paper or a thin flexible plastic film.

 Hundreds of shapes and sizes of gages are manufactured, but

the examples shown (enlarged) are fairly typical of single-
element gages:

443
 444
A roll of Aluminum Foil
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Types of Resistance(wire) strain gauges

 The gage (actually its carrier) is cemented to the specimen.

 As the specimen is loaded, and thus deformed, the gage is

deformed along with it, the gage length is changed and its
electrical resistance changes proportionally.
 Since the gage is securely bonded to the specimen it can
contract as well as elongate with the specimen, thus we
can detect both tensile (stretch) and compressive strains.

445
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Types of Resistance(wire) strain gauges

 In order to measure these changes we need instrumentation

which will allow us to accurately measure very small
changes in electrical resistance.
 These changes in electrical resistance permit us to
determine the strain (average strain over the gage
length). The governing relationship is as follows:
 where R is the electrical

 resistance of the gage

 (typically 120 ohms), DR is the measured change in electrical

resistance and GF is the gage factor. The gage factor (GF) is a
function of the gage material and is supplied by the
manufacturer. A value of about 2±20% is typical. 446
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Types of Resistance(wire) strain gauges

 We can not simply use an ohmmeter to measure the

changes in resistance of the strain gage. In order to
understand why this is so consider the following:
 Given a gage with a gage factor of 2 and a resistance of
120 ohms, the resistance change corresponding to ±1
micro strain would be:

447
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Types of Resistance(wire) strain gauges

 2.Unbonded wire Strain Gauge:

 The essential difference is that the bonded strain gauges
are bonded on to the specimen whose strain is being
measured whereas the Unbonded strain gauges are not
bonded on to the specimen.
 Hence they are termed as unbounded strain gauges.

448
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Types of Resistance(wire) strain gauges

 2.Unbonded wire Strain Gauge:



449
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Types of Resistance(wire) strain gauges

 2.Unbonded wire Strain Gauge:



450
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Types of Resistance(wire) strain gauges

 2.Unbonded wire Strain Gauge:

 Typically, the rheostat arm of the bridge (R2 in the
diagram) is set at a value equal to the strain gauge
resistance with no force applied. The two ratio arms of the
bridge (R1 and R3) are set equal to each other.
 Thus, with no force applied to the strain gauge, the bridge
will be symmetrically balanced and the voltmeter will
indicate zero volts, representing zero force on the strain
gauge.

451
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Types of Resistance(wire) strain gauges

 Application of Unbonded strain gauge:

 Unbonded strain gauge is used in places where the gauge

is to be detached and used again and again.
Unbonded strain gauges are used in force, pressure and
acceleration measurement.
 Advantages of Unbonded strain gauge
 The range of this gauge is +/- 0.15% strain.
 This gauge has a very high accuracy.
 Limitation of Unbonded strain gauges
 It occupies more space.

452
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Semiconductor Strain Gauges

 A typical semiconductor strain gauge is formed by the

semiconductor technology i.e., the semiconducting wafers
or filaments of length varying from 2 mm to 10 mm and
thickness of 0.05 mm are bonded on suitable insulating
substrates (for example Teflon).
 The gold leads are usually employed for making electrical
contacts.

453
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Semiconductor Strain Gauges

 The strain sensitive, elements used by the

semiconductor strain gauge are the
semiconductor materials such as, silicon
and germanium.
 When the strain is applied to the semiconductor
element a large of change in resistance occur which
can be measured with the help of a Wheatstone
bridge.
 The strain can be measured with high degree of
accuracy due to relatively high change in resistance.

454
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Semiconductor Strain Gauges

 A temperature compensated semiconductor strain

gauge can be used to measure small strains of
the order of 10-6 i.e., micro-strain.
 This type of gauge will have a gauge factor of 130 ±
10% for a semiconductor material of dimension 1 x
0.5 x 0.005 inch having the resistance of 350 Ω.

455
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Semiconductor Strain Gauges

 Advantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge:-

 1. The gauge factor of semiconductor strain gauge is very

high, about ±130.
 2. Semiconductor strain gauge exhibits very low hysteresis
i.e., less than 0.05%.
 3. They are useful in measurement of very small strains of
the order of 0.01 micro-strains due to their high gauge
factor.
 4. The semiconductor strain gauge has much higher output,
but it is as stable as a metallic strain gauge.
456
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Semiconductor Strain Gauges

 Advantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge:-

 5. It has a large life i.e., 10 x 106 operations can be

performed.
 6. They can be manufactured in very small sizes, their
lengths ranging from 0.7 to 7.0 mm.

457
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Semiconductor Strain Gauges (Example)

458
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Semiconductor Strain Gauges (Example)

459
What are the desirable characteristics for resistance wire
strain gauge?

460
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Capacitive Transducers

 To learn about a capacitive transducer, it is important to

know the basics of a parallel plate capacitor.
 Being the simplest form of a capacitor, it has two parallel
conducting plates that are separated to each other by a
dielectric or insulator with a permittivity of Ε (for air).
 Other than paper, vacuum, and semi-conductor depletion
region, the most commonly used dielectric is air.
 Due to a potential difference across the conductors, an
electric field develops across the insulator.
 This causes the positive charges to accumulate on one
plate and the negative charges to accumulate on the other.
461
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Capacitive Transducers

 The capacitor value is usually denoted by its capacitance,

which is measured in Farads. It can be defined as the ratio
of the electric charge on each conductor to the voltage
difference between them.
 The capacitance is denoted by C. In a parallel plate
capacitor, C = [A*Er*9.85*1012 F/M]/d
 A – Area of each plate (m)
 d – Distance between both the plates (m)
 Er – Relative Dielectric Constant
 The value 9.85*1012 F/M is a constant denoted by Eo and
is called the dielectric constant of free space.
462
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Capacitive Transducers

 From the equation it is clear that the value of capacitance

C and the distance between the parallel plates, d are
inversely proportional to each other.
 An increase of distance between the parallel plates will
decrease the capacitance value correspondingly.
 The same theory is used in a capacitive transducer. This
transducer is used to convert the value of displacement or
change in pressure in terms of frequency.

463
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Working of Capacitive Transducers

464
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Working of Capacitive Transducers

 As shown in the figure, a capacitive transducer has a static

plate and a deflected flexible diaphragm with a dielectric
in between.
 When a force is exerted to the outer side of the diaphragm
the distance between the diaphragm and the static plate
changes.
 This produces a capacitance which is measured using an
alternating current bridge or a tank circuit.
 A tank circuit is more preferred because it produces a
change in frequency according to the change in
capacitance. This value of frequency will be corresponding
to the displacement or force given to the input.
465
Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
Working of Capacitive Transducers

 Advantages
 It produces an accurate frequency response to both static and
dynamic measurements.
 Its power requirement is very small.

 Disadvantages
 An increase or decrease in temperature to a high level will
change the accuracy of the device.
 As the lead is lengthy it can cause errors or distortion in
signals.

466
 How capacitive transducers are superior
to other transducers?

 Ans. 1. Their power requirements is very

small.
 2. These have a very good dynamic response,
as the capacitor plates themselves have very
little mass.

467
Chapter:9
AC Power Analysis
 Know the difference between instantaneous power
and average power
 Learn the AC version of maximum power transfer
theorem
 Learn about the concepts of effective or rms value
 Learn about the complex power, apparent power
and power factor
 Understand the principle of conservation of AC
power
 Learn about power factor correction

468