DATABASE

MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM
 Contents
 Functional Dependency

 Types of Functional Dependency

 Closure of Attribute

 Equivalence of functional dependencies

 Minimal sets of functional dependency

 Types of Keys

 How we can find the total number of candidate keys?

FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY

• Functional dependency is a relationship that exists when one

attribute uniquely determines another attribute. If R is a relation
having attributes X and Y, a functional dependency between the
attributes is represented as XY, which specifies Y is functionally
dependent on X .

• f(x)y X Y
• 1a a 1
• 1b b 1
• 2a c 3
a 1
FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY

• Functional dependency is a relationship that exists when one

attribute uniquely determines another attribute. If R is a relation
having attributes X and Y, a functional dependency between the
attributes is represented as XY, which specifies Y is functionally
dependent on X .

XR t1[a]=t4[a] X Y
YR t1[1]=t4[1] t1 a 1
t2 b 1
If t1[X]=t2[X] t3 c 3
Then t1[Y]=t2[Y] t4 a 1
• For example:
• Suppose we have a student table with attributes:
Stu_Id, Stu_Name, Stu_Age.

• Here Stu_Id attribute uniquely identifies the Stu_Name

attribute of student table because if we know the student
id we can tell the student name associated with it.
Functional dependency and can be written as :
Stu_IdStu_Name
we can say Stu_Name is functionally dependent on Stu_Id.

Formally:
If column A of a table uniquely identifies the column B of same table
then it can represented as AB (Attribute B is functionally
dependent on attribute A)
 A B C D
AB 
a1 b1 c1 d1
AC 
a1 b2 c1 d2
AD  a2 b2 c2 d2
BC X a2 b2 c2 d3
BD  a3 b3 c2 d4
CD 
TYPES OF FUNCTIONAL
DEPENDENCIES
• Trivial functional dependency

• Non-trivial functional
dependency
TRIVIAL FUNCTIONAL
DEPENDENCY
• The dependency of an attribute on a set of attributes is known
as trivial functional dependency if the set of attributes includes
that attribute.

Symbolically:
• A B is trivial functional dependency if B is a subset of A.
• The following dependencies are also trivial:
• AA
• BB
• ABA
• For example:
Consider a table with two columns Student_id and Student_Name.

{Student_Id, Student_Name}  Student_Id is a trivial functional

dependency as Student_Id is a subset of {Student_Id,
Student_Name}.

• Also, Student_Id  Student_Id

AND

• Student_Name  Student_Name are trivial dependencies too.

NON-TRIVIAL FUNCTIONAL
DEPENDENCY

• If a functional dependency XY holds true where Y

is not a subset of X then this dependency is called
non trivial Functional dependency.
Example :
An employee table with three attributes: emp_id,
emp_name, emp_address.

The following functional dependencies are non-trivial:

emp_id  emp_name (emp_name is not a subset of

emp_id)
emp_id  emp_address (emp_address is not a subset of emp_id)
Completely non trivial
FD:
If a Functional dependency XY holds true where X intersection Y is Null then this
dependency is said to be completely non trivial function dependency.
FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCIES CONT.
 We’d expect the following functional
dependencies to hold in our Student
database
 sid  sname,address
 cid  cname
 sid,cid  grade
 A functional dependency X  Y is simply a
pair of sets (of field names)
 Note:the sloppy notation A,B  C,D rather than
{A,B}  {C,D}
INFERENCE RULES
 Reflexive Rule: If XY then YX
 R(A,B,C,D)ABCAB
 Example: sname,addressaddress
 Augmentation Rule: If XY then
X,ZY,Z
 Example:As cidcname then
cid,sidcname,sid
 Transitive Rule: If XY and YZ then XZ
 Example:sid,cid  cid and
cid  cname, then sid,cid  cname
 Union or Additive Rule: If XY and XZ
then XY,Z
 Pseudo-transitive Rule: If XY and Y,ZW

then X,ZW
 Decomposition or Productive Rule: If

XYZ XY and X  Z.

CLOSURE OF A SET OF FDS
 Closure of attribute ( X+ ) is a set of attributes
which can be logically determined using X.
 R(ABCDE)

 F = { ABC, CDE, BD, EA}

 B+ = BD
 A+ = ABCDE = R
 CD+ = CDEAB = R
 E+ = EABCD = R
 EXAMPLE OF CLOSURE

Consider R(ABCDEFGH) and following functional

dependency set then check whether BCDH will
belongs to the set or not?
F= { ABC, CDE, EC, DAEH, ABHBD
DHBC }

(BCD)+ = BCDEAH
EQUIVALENCE OF FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCIES
COVER : A SET OF FUNCTIONAL
DEPENDENCIES F IS SAID TO COVER
ANOTHER SET OF DEPENDENCIES E IF EVERY
FD IN E IS ALSO IN F +.
Or we can say that E is covered by F.

Two sets of functional dependencies E and F are

equivalent if E+ = F+.
EXAMPLE
• Consider R(A,B,C,D,E,H) and 2 functional dependency sets F and G over
R.
F: AC G: ACD
ACD EAH
EAD
EH
Now check which is correct option:
(i) F covers G (ii) G covers F (iii) F is equivalent to G (iv) None of these

F+ : A+ = ACD G+ : A+ = ACD
(AC)+ = ACD E+ =
EADHC
E+ = EAHCD

(iii) F is equivalent to G.
 EXAMPLE
o Let us take another example to show the
relationship between two FD sets. A relation
R2(A,B,C,D) having two FD sets
o FD1 = {A->B, B->C,A->C} and FD2 = {A->B,
B->C, A->D}

Now check which is correct option:

(i) F covers G (ii) G covers F (iii) F is equivalent
to G
(iv) None of the above
MINIMAL SETS OF FUNCTIONAL
DEPENDENCY
is a set functional dependencies F that satisfies the property
that every dependency in E is in the closure of F+of F.
•A minimal cover of a set of FDs F is a minimal
set of functional dependencies Fmin that is
equivalent to F. There can be many such
minimal covers for a set of functional
dependencies F.
 is a set functional dependencies F that satisfies the property
that every dependency in E is in the closure of F+of F.
Simple properties/steps of minimal cover:
1. Right Hand Side (RHS) of all FDs should be single attribute.
2. Remove extraneous attributes.
3. Eliminate redundant functional dependencies.
EXAMPLE
o R (ABCDE) STEP-2:
A+ = ABC STEP-3:
AB A+ = A AB
ABC A+ = AB AB  C
DAC D AE
DE STEP-2:
(AB)+ = ABC
(AB)+ = AB STEP-4:
STEP-1: (AB)+ = ABC
AB A+ = ABC
ABC B+ = B
STEP-2:
DA D+ = DACEB
DC D+ = DCE STEP-5:
DE D+ = DAEBC A  BC
D+ = DABC D AE
PRACTICE QUESTION

Find a minimal cover for the following set of functional dependencies:

Relation R = (A, B, C, D, E, F)

F={A →C
AC → D
E → ADF }
WHY WE HAVE KEYS IN DB?
o A Key is an attribute or a set of attributes in a
relation that identifies a tuple (record) in a
relation.
o The keys are defined in a table to access or
sequence the stored data quickly and
smoothly.
o They are also used to create relationship
between different tables.
TYPES OF KEYS IN DATABASE

o Primary Key
o Candidate Key
o Alternate Key
o Super Key
o Composite Key
o Foreign Key
o Unique Key
 PRIMARY KEY
Employee
• Which is Unique & Can’t be have
NULL Value
EmployeeID
EmployeeName
• Is the column you choose to
maintain uniqueness in a table at
SSN
row level.
DeptID
• Here in Employee table we can
DOB
choose either EmployeeID or
SSN
column for a PK.
PRIMARY KEY
o It is a candidate key that is chosen by the
database designer to identify entities with in
an entity set.
o Primary key is the minimal super keys. In the
ER diagram primary key is represented by
underlining the primary key attribute.
o Ideally a primary key is composed of only a
single attribute.
o But it is possible to have a primary key
composed of more than one attribute.
 TO DEFINE A FIELD AS PRIMARY KEY,
FOLLOWING CONDITIONS HAD TO BE MET :
o No two rows can have the same primary key value.
o Every row must have a primary key value.
o The primary key field cannot be null.
o Value in a primary key column can never be modified
or updated, if any foreign key refers to that primary key.
 CANDIDATE KEY
Employee o Any individual columns in a table that qualifies for
EmployeeID
uniqueness of each row/tuple.
o Here in Employee table EmployeeID & SSN are
EmployeeName
eligible for a Primary Key and thus are Candidate
SSN
keys.
DeptID o Candidate Keys are super keys for which no proper
DOB subset is a super key. In other words candidate keys
are minimal super keys.
 ALTERNATE KEY
Employee
EmployeeID
o Candidate column other the Primary
EmployeeName column, like if EmployeeID is chosen
SSN for a PK then SSN would be the
DeptID Alternate key.
DOB
Employee
SUPER KEY
EmployeeID o If you add any other Column / Attribute to
a Primary Key then it become a Super Key,
EmployeeName
like EmployeeID + EmployeeName is a
SSN Super Key.
DeptID o Super key stands for superset of a key.
DOB o A Super Key is a set of one or more
attributes that are taken collectively and
can identify all other attributes uniquely.
 COMPOSITE KEY
Employee o If a table do not have a single column that
EmployeeID qualifies for a Candidate key, then you have
to select 2 or more columns to make a row
EmployeeName unique.
o Like if there is no EmployeeID or SSN
SSN
columns, then you can make
DeptID EmployeeName + DateOfBirth (DOB) as
Composite Primary Key. But still there can
DOB
be a narrow chance of duplicate rows.
 Employee
FOREIGN KEY
Department
EmployeeID
EmployeeName
DeptID
DeptName
SSN
DeptID
DOB

o Here in above tables DeptID of Department table

is Primary Key where as DeptID of Employee is a
Foreign key.
o It means it has referred to another table. This
concept is also know as Referential Integrity.
 UNIQUE KEY
Employee
o Unique key is same as primary key with
EmployeeID
the difference being the existence of null.
EmployeeName

SSN

EmailID
DOB
SUMMARY
o Overall, Super Key is the broadest unique identifier;
Candidate Key is a subset of Super Key; and Primary
Key is a subset of Candidate Key.
o In practice, we would first look for Super Keys. Then we look
for Candidate Keys based on experience and common
sense.
o If there is only one Candidate Key, it naturally will be
designated as the Primary Key.
o If we find more than one Candidate Key, then we can
designate any one of them as Primary Key.
FINDING CANDIDATE KEYS-
We can determine the candidate keys of a given relation using the
following steps-
Step-01:
• Determine all essential attributes of the given relation.

• Essential attributes are those attributes which are not present on

RHS of any functional dependency.
• Essential attributes are always a part of every candidate key.

• This is because they can not be determined by other attributes.

Step-02:
• The remaining attributes of the relation are non-essential
attributes.
• This is because they can be determined by using essential
attributes.
Case-01:

 If all essential attributes together can determine all remaining non-essential attributes,
then-
• The combination of essential attributes is the candidate key.
• It is the only possible candidate key.

Case-02:

 If all essential attributes together can not determine all remaining non-essential
attributes, then-
• The set of essential attributes and some non-essential attributes will be the candidate
key(s).
• In this case, multiple candidate keys are possible.
• To find the candidate keys, we check different combinations of essential and non-
essential attributes.
EXAMPLE
 Let R = (A, B, C, D, E, F) be a relation with the following
dependencies-
C→F
E→A
EC → D
A→B
Which of the following is a key for R?
1. CD

2. EC

3. AE

4. AC
 Step-01: R = (A, B, C, D, E, F)
• Determine all essential attributes of the given relation. C→F
E→A
• Essential attributes of the relation are- C and E. EC → D
• So, attributes C and E will definitely be a part of every candidate key. A→B
 Step-02:
We will check if the essential attributes together can determine all remaining non-essential
attributes.
• To check, we find the closure of CE.
{ CE }+
={C,E}
= { C , E , F } ( Using C → F )
= { A , C , E , F } ( Using E → A )
= { A , C , D , E , F } ( Using EC → D )
= { A , B , C , D , E , F } ( Using A → B ) = R
EXAMPLE
 Consider the relation schema R(E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N) and the set of
functional dependencies-
{ E, F } → { G }
{F}→{I,J}
{ E, H } → { K, L }
{K}→{M}
{L}→{N}

What is the key for R?

1. { E, F }

2. { E, F, H }

3. { E, F, H, K, L }

4. { E }
 Step-01:
• Determine all essential attributes of the given relation.
• Essential attributes of the relation are- E, F and H.
• So, attributes E, F and H will definitely be a part of every candidate key.
 Step-02:
• We will check if the essential attributes together can determine all remaining non-essential
attributes.
• To check, we find the closure of EFH. R(E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N)
{ EFH }+
{E,F,H}
{ E, F } → { G }
{F}→{I,J}
= { E , F , G , H } ( Using EF → G )
{ E, H } → { K, L }
= { E , F , G , H , I , J } ( Using F → IJ )
{K}→{M}
= { E , F , G , H , I , J , K , L } ( Using EH → KL )
{L}→{N}
= { E , F , G , H , I , J , K , L , M } ( Using K → M )
= { E , F , G , H , I , J , K , L , M , N } ( Using L → N ) = R

 So, EFH is the only possible candidate key of the relation.

EXAMPLE
 Consider the relation schema R(A, B, C, D, E, H)

and the set of functional dependencies-

A→B
BC → D
E→C
D→A
What are the candidate keys of R?
 Step-01:
• Determine all essential attributes of the given relation.
• Essential attributes of the relation are- E and H.
• So, attributes E and H will definitely be a part of every
candidate key.
 Step-02:
• We will check if the essential attributes together can
determine all remaining non-essential attributes.
R(A, B, C, D, E,
• To check, we find the closure of EH. H)
A→B
BC → D
E→C
 R(A, B, C, D, E, H)

(EH)+ = EHC  R A→B
 (EHA)+ = EHABCD = R BC → D
 (EHD)+ = EHDABC = R E→C
 (EHBC)+ = EHBCDA = R = C.K/S.K.

D→A
(EHB)+ = EHBCDA = R = C.K.
 (EHC)+ = EHC  R

C.K. ={ EHA, EHD, EHB }

P.A. = { E,H,A,D,B}
N.P.A = R – P.A.
N.P.A.= {C}
THANKS