Chapter 3

Data and
Transmission
Standards

1
Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic, you should be
able to:

1. Describe the various data formats

used for communication
2. Discover the contents of
transmitted data
3. Discover the various types of node
addressing and data movement
4. Learn the protocols which controls
communication
5. Explore the architecture of
communication defined
DATA COMMUNICATIONS in OSI
AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
Topics
1. Data Transmission Formats
2. Network Protocols
3. OSI Model

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 3

 Section 1
Data Transmission Formats
Digital vs Analog Data
• Analogue signals are generated using wave
spectrums such as from radio wave transmitter
• Analogue signals are used in common radio
wave transmission and telephone lines.
• Analogue signals can be used to carry data but
need to be converted when it reached
computer devices (such as a MODEM)
• Analogues data can be disrupted by ‘noise’ and
are not very stable.
• Digital data is the only ‘language’ that the
computer understands.
• Base digital data is in form BINARY (zeros and
ones) used for processing
• Digital data can be stored and transmitted in
OCTAL and HEXADECIMAL form.
• Multiplexing is used to blend many digital data to
be sent at once.
• Digital signals are very stable and accurate.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 5

Common Media Types

audio generally video service carries

encompasses sounds sequences of pictures in
that are produced by time. This usually had
the human speech the largest data size,
mechanism hence slow to transmit

text is information that

image supports the can be entered via a
communication of keyboard and is directly
individual pictures, readable and printable.
charts, or drawings Smallest data size and
easy to transmit

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 6

 Serial and Parallel Data Transmission

• SERIAL transmission is a
communication method that uses one
or two transmission lines to send and
receive data. Example Computer to
computer commuter
communication
• Data is continuously sent and
received one bit at a time.
• This method is used for simple and
small data communication
• In PARALLEL transmission, data bits
are transmitted simultaneously
through multiple links, which are
placed parallel to each other.
Example: Computer to printer
communication
• Large network and broadband uses
this method to transmit large data.
7 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
Data Transmission depends on …

Type of
Standards Size of
used data

Type of
transmissi
on
protocol

S
Distance
p Type of
e medium
e Availabilit
d y

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 8

Data Packets

• Data transmitted in the network

are broken down into bits.
• The bits can be ‘packed’ into an
envelope called DATA PACKETS.
• Each Packets contains;
• Packet Header - contains all
information about the packet,
including its origin and destination
IP addresses.

• Payload / Datagram – the actual

data being carried.

• Packet Trailer – Error checking

mechanism

• Each packet is labeled like a mail

envelope with details for the
packets to reach its destination.
9 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
Data Packets …. cont

A Packet has total of 1024 bits

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 10

 IP Address

• An Internet Protocol address (IP

address) is a unique numerical
label such as 192.0.2.1 that is
assigned to a network device.
• All independent network device
should have a unique IP Address.
• The Internet Protocol controls the IP
address in a network.
• A ‘IP Conflict’ happens when two or
more devices in the same network
has the same IP Address
• IP address serves two main
functions:
• network interface identification and

• location addressing
11 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
Types of IP Address

Static IP Dynamic IP Public IP Private IP Broadcast IP

• Fixed IP • The IP • A standard IP • A ‘hidden’ IP • A network IP

address given changes given to a often which is used
to a machine every time machine so assigned to a by every
• The machine the machine everyone can machine that machine in
uses same IP connects to see and is for private the same
to connect to the network connect to it use such as a network.
the network • This is more firewall. • Used for
every time secure group
connection
and
transmission

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 12

 IPv4

• Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)

defines an IP address as a 32-bit
binary digit.

• The 32 bits is made of 8 digits

(OCTED), making it 4 bytes

• Each OCTED has a maximum decima

number of 255.

• The first address could be 0.0.0.1 and

the last address in a network would
be 255..255.255.255.

• Some numbers are reserved or has

special dedication. Example;
255.255.255.255 is known as the
Broadcast Address

13 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY

How do you check your own IP Address?

On a Mac: Apple menu > System

On a PC running Windows 10/11: On the
Preferences > Network > Select either Wi-
task bar, select Wi-Fi or Ethernet > click on
Fi or Ethernet, depending on your
the network you’re currently connected
connection > your IP address is displayed in
to > select Properties > your IP address is
the open window, right beneath the status
listed next to “IPv4 address.”
of your connection.

On an Android smartphone or
tablet: Settings > Wireless & Networks (or
On an iPhone/iPad: Settings > Wi-Fi > tap
“Network & Internet” on Pixel
the arrow next to your network name >
devices) > select the Wi-Fi network that
your IP address is displayed to the right of
you’re connected to > Your IP address is
“IP address.”
displayed alongside other network
information.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 14

 Subnetting

• Subnetting allows a network

administrator to divide a large
number of workstations into
smaller groups of networks
• Each group can be assigned a
specific range of IP Address and a
SAME Subnet ID
• The admins can easily assign
everyone in a department to the
same Subnet ID.
• Subnetting also allows the admin
to expand the number of
workstation using only limited
number of IP addresses.
• Subnets can be created and
configured using Routers.
15 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
Subnetting …example

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 16

 IPv6

• Because of the growth of the

Internet and the depletion of
available IPv4 addresses, a new
version of IP (IPv6), using 128
bits for the IP address, was
standardized in 1998
• IPv6 number is written in 16bit
(hexadecimal) format such as
2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1
• Most of today’s network devices
can use both IPv4 and IPv6
• IPV6 is more resilient and secure
than IPv4

17 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY

 VLAN

• Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a latest

alternative to subnetting to divide
a network into several smaller
ones.
• VLANS are configured using a VLAN
Switch. The ‘ports’ in the VLAN
Switch can be configured to isolate
/ group certain workstation into a
virtual network group of their own.
• VLANs are easier to configure and
control compared to SubNets as
they don’t need additional Routers,
Firewalls, etc.
• VLAN however depends on the
switched and the type of their
security levels.

18 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY

 MAC Address

• MAC address. Unique address

also known as physical network
addresses, are assigned to NICs
• MAC addresses are primarily
assigned by device
manufacturers
• MAC address is often used by
switches to identify the machines
that they are connecting to,
along with IP Address
verification.

19 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY

Quick Quiz
• What are the difference between Static IP and Dynamic IP
address?

• What are the CLASS for the following IP V4 addresses ?

IP Address Class
192.168.20.21
127.0.2.1
244.244.244.0

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 20

Quick Quiz
• What are the difference between Static IP and Dynamic IP
address?
NO Static IP Address Dynamic IP address
1. It is provided by ISP(Internet Service While it is provided by DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Provider). Protocol).
2. Static IP address does not change any While dynamic IP address change any time.
time, it means if a static IP address is
provided then it can’t be changed or
modified.
3. Static IP address is less secure. While in dynamic IP address, there is low amount of risk
than static IP address’s risk.
4. Static IP address is difficult to designate. While dynamic IP address is easy to designate.
5. The device designed by static IP address But the device designed by dynamic IP address can’t be
can be trace. trace.
6. Static IP address is more stable than While dynamic IP address is less stable than static IP
dynamic IP address. address.
7. The cost to maintain the static IP address While the maintaining cost of dynamic IP address is less
is higher than dynamic IP address. than static IP address.
8. It is used where computational data is less While it is used where data is more confidential and needs
confidential. more security.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 21
Quick Quiz
• What are the CLASS for the following IP V4 addresses ?

IP Address Class
192.168.20.21 C
127.0.2.1 A
244.244.244.0 E

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 22

 Section 2
Network Protocols
 What are Network Protocols?

• Network Protocol is a set of rules that

two connected computer should
follow when exchanging data.

• The protocols control the properties

of the data being transmitted such as
the data format, data type, speed,
addressing and error control to name
a few.

• Data transmitted on the internet,

involves several protocols at several
location in between the path.

• Protocols are a set of files installed in

each of the communicating devices

• Protocols can be defined using the

OSI or TCP/IP model.

24 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY

 What are Network Protocols? … cont

• Typically, two network device which

are communicating should be using
the same protocols
• Network protocols breaks larger
processes into discrete, narrowly
defined functions and tasks across
every level of the network
• Protocols which controls the
communication will add information
in the data packet’s header (and
sometimes trailer)
• Devices in the network refers to the
data packet’s header to manage the
data.
• Each protocols uses a PORT (with
dedicated number) to enter a
computer device.
25 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
Main Functions of Network Protocols

Connection Segmentation
Data Transfer
Establishment/ Encapsulation and
Management
Release Reassembly

Multiplexing/ Ordered
Addressing Error Control
Demultiplexing Delivery

Transmission
Services
Flow Control Data Priority Security
(Quality of
Service)

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 26

 TCP/IP

• TCP – Transmission Control

Protocol
• TCP is a transport layer protocol that
provides a reliable data transmission
in the network. It perform a 3–way-
handshake to ensure the connection is
established.
• TCP automatically breaks data into
packets before transmission
• Through flow control and
acknowledgement of data, TCP
provides extensive error checking.
• TCP ensures three things: data reaches
the destination, reaches it on time,
and reaches it without duplication.
• TCP request for retransmission of lost
data.
27 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
 TCP/IP … cont

• IP - Internet Protocol
• IP is a network layer protocol that
contains addressing and control
information which helps packets be
routed in a network.
• IP works in tandem with TCP to
deliver data packets across the
network.
• Under IP, each host is assigned a 32-
bit address comprised of two major
parts: the network number and host
number.
• The IP is only responsible for
delivering the packets, and TCP helps
puts them back in the right order.
• With IP, routing data becomes more
scalable and economical.
28 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
 UDP – User Datagram Protocol

• Alternative to TCP
• Does not guarantee delivery,
preservation of sequence, or
protection against duplication
• UDP speeds up transmissions by
enabling the transfer of data before
an agreement is provided by the
receiving party.
• Enables a procedure to send
messages to other procedures with a
minimum of protocol mechanism
• Adds port addressing capability to IP.
Includes a checksum to verify that
no error occurs in the data
• Good for broadcast and unicast
transmission
29 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
 Http & Https

• HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer

Protocol) is an application layer
protocol used for handling of HTML
based files on the internet.
• HTTP usually works in on internet
browser at the client.
• Data such as text, images, and
other multimedia files are shared
over the World Wide Web using
HTTP.
• HTTP lacks encryption capabilities,
making it less secure. Therefore
HTTPs (HTTP-secure) was
established where all the data
transmitted using this protocols
are encrypted for more security.
30 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
 SMTP & POP and IMAP

• SMTP (Simple Mail Transmission

Protocol) is a protocol designed to
transfer electronic mail reliably and
efficiently.
• SMTP is a push protocol and is used to
send the email.
• POP (The Post Office Protocol) and
IMAP (Internet Message Access
Protocol) are email receiving protocols.
• Using these protocols, the end user can
download emails from the mail server to
their own email client.
• Once the emails are downloaded locally,
they can be read without an internet
connection, then they get deleted from
the mail server, freeing up space.
• IMAP4 can perform some advance
manipulation operation in the server.
31 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
 Domain Name

• A domain name is a unique address

for a website. Usually, it consists of a
website name and a domain name
extension.
• A domain name can be used to
identify a single IP address or group of
IP addresses.
• Domain names are tied to websites
files in a Web Server.
• Domain Name are accredited by the
Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers (ICANN) or other
organizations such as OpenNIC
• Domain names are formed by the
rules and procedures of the Domain
Name System (DNS). Any name
registered in the DNS is a domain
name
32 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
 DNS

• Domain Name System (DNS) is a

protocol which is used to fetch and
convert domain names into IP
Address.
• The DNS Server, stores the IP address
of most websites on the internet.
• When a user types a web address in
the browser, the address is sent to
DNS servers and the protocol will
search for the valid IP Address and
returns it to the browser.
• The Browser then, used the IP Address
to connect to the intended server.
• DNS Servers could be maintained by
private and public companies. They
could be many layers of DNS Servers
before the accurate address is found

33 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY

 DHCP

• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration

Protocol) assigns IP addresses to
network endpoints automatically so
they can communicate with other
network endpoints over IP.
• DHCP works on a client-server
model.
• When a device connects to a
network, a DHCP handshake takes
place and the servers assigns the
client a available IP Address.
• DHCP centralized management of IP
addresses. Addition of new clients is
made easy.
• Reuse of IP addresses, reducing the
total number of IP addresses
required.
34 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
Other Popular Protocols

Simple Network Address

The File Transfer Secure Shell
Management Resolution
Protocol (FTP) (SSH)
Protocol (SNMP) Protocol (ARP)
• SNMP protocol is • FTP under the • SSH is a network • ARP is used to
made to send TCP/IP suite, is protocol that map the IP
error messages used to transfer uses Address of a
in a network. It files from one cryptography in network device
works with the IP server to order to secure to it’s MAC
protocol. another. network services Address for
• SNMP is mainly • It is responsible over unsecured further
used to for the reliably networks verification and
determine and efficient communication.
whether data is transfer of files • ARP is handled in
reaching its switches within
specified the network.
destination in the
best ways.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 35

Quick Quiz
• What are the difference between TCP and UDP?

• Name a few network protocols under the TCP/IP suite

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 36

Quick Quiz
• What are the difference between TCP and UDP?

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 37

Quick Quiz
• Name a few network protocols under the TCP/IP suite

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 38

Section 3
OSI Model
 OSI Model

• The Open Systems Interconnection

(OSI) reference model is an abstract
model of the computer network,
inception in 1984
• It contains logical levels which defines
the communication process from one
computer (device) to another.
• Hardware and software used within the
network can be associated to one or
more levels in OSI model.
• Components in the same level have the
similar behavior
• Manufacturers and software developers
can refer to OSI for creating their
product which could have the same
level of standards.
• OSI is a product of the International
Standards Organization (ISO).
40 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
Benefits of OSI Model

Also, since the Finally, the OSI

OSI model is a model makes
The OSI model
By separating the layered network designs
divides the
design into logical architecture, more extensible.
communication
smaller pieces, changes in one New protocols
process into
vendors can more layer would not and other
smaller
easily solve have adverse network services
components. This
network design effects on the are generally
makes it easier to
problems through other layers. This easier to add to a
understand the
divide-and- would result in layered
communication
conquer. easier architecture than
process.
development for to a monolithic
any layer. one.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY

Layer 7 – Application Application
Layer layer is known as
Data
This is the only
Same as application Application
layer that directly
interacts with
data from the
user. Presentation
Software
applications like
Example Session
web browsers
Applications;
and email
Web browsers
clients rely on
(Google Transport
the application
Chrome, Firefox,
layer to initiate
Safari, etc..
communications
Network
.
This layer
It receives Data Link
communicates
information
with application
directly from
that the user
users and Physical
uses to
displays
send/receive
incoming data
data in the
to the user. DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 42
Layer 6 – Presentation Layer
Presentation is known as Data
Similar to session
Responsibl Application
e for
compressin
g data it Presentation
receives
Translating
from the
This layer incoming
Responsibl application Session
makes the data into a
e for layer
data syntax that
adding the before
presentabl the
encryption delivering Transport
e for application
and it to layer
application layer of the
description 5, to
s to receiving Network
of message improve
consume. device can
the speed
understand
and
efficiency Data Link
of
communica
tion Physical

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 43

Layer 5 – Session Layer
Transport layer is known as
segments
Router Application
The network layer
is responsible for
facilitating data Presentation
transfer between
two different
networks Session

The session Transport

layer also
This is the layer
synchronizes
responsible for Network
data transfer
opening and
with
closing
checkpoints,
communication
which can be Data Link
(a session)
used to resume
between the
transmission if
two devices.
the session is Physical
interrupted

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 44

Layer 4 – Transport Layer Transport layer is known as
segments
Responsible for end-to-end Router
communication between the two Application
devices.
Presentation

Data from the session layer is broken

up into chunks called segments Session
before sending it to layer 3.

Responsible for flow control, Transport

determines an optimal speed of
transmission to ensure that a sender
with a fast connection doesn’t Network
overwhelm a receiver with a slow
connection.
Performs error control on the Data Link
receiving end by ensuring that the
data received is complete, and
requesting a retransmission if it Physical
isn’t.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 45
Layer 3 – Network Layer
Network layer is known as
packets
Application
Router
IP Presentation
This layer breaks up
segments from the Session
transport layer into
smaller units, called The network layer also
packets, on the handles packet routing Transport
sender’s device, and using IP address
reassembling these
packets on the Network
receiving device.

Data Link

Physical

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 46

Layer 2 – Data Link Layer Data Link layer is known as
Frames
The data link
Switches Application
layer is very
similar to the PPP
The data link
network layer, layer takes
except the data packets from the Presentation
link layer network layer and
facilitates data breaks them into
transfer between smaller pieces
two devices on called frames.
Session
the SAME
network.
Transport

Like the network

layer, the data Network
link layer is also
MAC Address is
responsible for
added to the data
flow control and
here Data Link
error control in
intra-network
communication
Physical

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 47

Layer 1 – Physical Layer
Physical layer is known
as Bits. Application

Cables/WiFi Presentation

In this layer, Physical

Includes the Session
data gets communicati
physical
converted into on mediums
equipment
a bit stream, are identified Transport
which is a such as
and
string of 1s cables and
conversion
and 0s. switches Network
agreed.

Data Link

Physical

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 48

OSI Model, its components and Protocols

• Almost all network equipment and

protocols can be mapped into OSI Models.
• Each equipment and protocols play their
role in these layers
• Four main points are the devices used,
protocols, How data are represented and
functions in that layer

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 49

 TCP/IP Model

• TCP/IP Model provides end-to-end

data communication,
specification and control.
• TCP/IP protocol suite has many
other associated protocols which
work independently to ensure
effective communication.
• The Internet protocol suite
provides end-to-end data
communication specifying how
data should be packetized,
addressed, transmitted, routed,
and received
• TCP/IP Model is more adoptable
and scalable than OSI Model
50 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY
OSI vs TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP OSI
TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol. OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.
TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.
TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable
TCP/IP does not have very strict boundaries. OSI has strict boundaries
TCP/IP follow a horizontal approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.
TCP/IP uses both session and presentation layer OSI uses different session and presentation
in the application layer itself. layers.
TCP/IP developed protocols then model. OSI developed model then protocol.
Transport layer in TCP/IP does not provide In OSI model, transport layer provides assurance
assurance delivery of packets. delivery of packets.
Connection less and connection oriented both
TCP/IP model network layer only provides
services are provided by network layer in OSI
connection less services.
model.
While in OSI model, Protocols are better covered
Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP
and is easy to replace with the change in
model.
technology.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 51
Quick Quiz
1. At which layer do router devices 3. The Session layer communicates
operate? with which other layers?
a) Data Link Layer a) None
b) Network Layer b) Application and Transport
c) Transport Layer c) Transport and Network
d) Physical Layer d) Transport and Presentation
e) Application Layer e) Transport, Presentation, and Network

4. What devices operate at the Data

Link Layer?
2. Which layer manages the reliable
transfer of data from the host to host f) Hubs
(or end to end)? g) Switches
a) Network Layer h) Repeaters
b) Data Link Layer i) Hubs and Repeaters
c) Session Layer j) Routers
d) Presentation Layer
e) Transport Layer

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 52

Quick Quiz
1. At which layer do router devices 3. The Session layer communicates
operate? with which other layers?
a) Data Link Layer a) None
b) Network Layer b) Application and Transport
c) Transport Layer c) Transport and Network
d) Physical Layer d) Transport and Presentation
e) Application Layer e) Transport, Presentation, and Network

4. What devices operate at the Data

2. Which layer manages the reliable Link Layer?
transfer of data from the host to host f) Hubs
(or end to end)? g) Switches
a) Network Layer h) Repeaters
b) Data Link Layer i) Hubs and Repeaters
c) Session Layer j) Routers
d) Presentation Layer
e) Transport Layer

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING © PSB ACADEMY 53

End