MET 443

AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

SANTHOSH T
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT
CE ADOOR
 Aerospace engineering
• Aerospace engineering is the primary field
of engineering concerned with the development of
aircraft and spacecraft.
• It has two major and overlapping branches:
aeronautical engineering and astronautical engineering.
• It include engineering disciplines like aerodynamics,
propulsion, avionics, materials science, structural analysis
and manufacturing.
• Aerodynamics isThe study of objects in motion
through the air and the forces that produce or
change such motion
 The atmosphere - characteristics of troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere, and ionosphere
M1 pressure, temperature and density variations in the atmosphere. Application of dimensional MET443.1 20
analysis – aerodynamic force – model study and similitude. 2D aero foils -Nomenclature
and classification- pressure distribution in inviscid and real flows- momentum and
circulation theory of aero foil- characteristics.

3D or finite aero foils – effect of releasing the wingtips- wing tip vortices- replacement of
M2 finite wing by horse shoe vertex system, lifting line theory-wing load distribution – aspect MET443.2 20
ratio, induced drag calculation of induced drag from momentum considerations. Skin
friction and from drag- changes in finite wing plan shape

Propellers – momentum and blade element theories –propeller coefficients and charts.
Aircraft performance-straight and level flight –power required and power available graphs
M3 for propeller and jet aircraft. Gliding and climbing –rate of climb-service and absolute MET443.3 20
ceilings-gliding angle and speed of flattest glide takeoff and landing performance – length
of runway required- aircraft ground run- circling flight – radius of tightest turn-jet and
rocket assisted take –off high lift devices-range and endurance of airplanes-charts for piston
and jet engine aircrafts.

Flight Instruments-airspeed indicator, calculation of true air speed-altimeter, gyro horizon -

direction indicator-vertical speed indicator –turn and back indicator-air temperature
M4 indicator. (Brief description and qualitative ideas only). Ideas on stability-static and MET443.4 20
dynamic stability- longitudinal, lateral and directional stability- controls of an aero
planeaerodynamic
balancing of control surfaces- mass balancing

Principles of wind tunnel testing –open and closed type wind tunnels-wind tunnel balance
M5 supersonic wind tunnels. Study of subsonic, Transonic, and supersonic aircraft engines MET443.5 20
(Description with figures only).Elementary ideas on space travel-calculation of earth
orbiting and escape velocities ignoring air resistance and assuming circular orbit.
 Text books & Reference book

• 1. A.C. Kermode, Mechanics of flight, Prentice Hall, 2007

• 2. Anderson, Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, McGraw-Hill,
2010
• 3. EHJ Pallett, Aircraft Instruments and Integrated systems,
Longman,1992

• Reference book
• 1. Houghton and brock, Aerodynamics for Engineering
Student, Hodder & Stoughton,1977
 COURSE OUTCOMES
Cognitive Level
Sl.No. DESCRIPTION

MET443.1 Identify various characteristics of atmosphere and model study Apply

MET443.2 Discuss airfoil theory, 2D, 3D or Finite aero foils Understand

MET443.3 Explain perform analysis of flight dynamics of aircrafts Apply

MET443.4 Understand different flight instruments Understand

MET443.5 Discuss the principles of wind tunnel testing Understand

 MET443
AEROSPACE ENGINEERING
MODULE 1
 Why Atmosphere study ?
• Airplanes fly in the earth’s atmosphere and
therefore, it is necessary to know the
properties of this atmosphere
• In order to fly, we need to create an upward
force equal to the weight of the flying body by
using the Atmosphere
• This force comes from the action of the
atmosphere (air) on the body (an airfoil)
Components in earth’s atmosphere
• The components of our earth’s atmosphere
may be divided broadly as
1. Major Constituents
2. Minor Constituents
3. Trace Constituants
• The density of the atmosphere decrease sharply with
increasing altitude.
• More than 99% of the total mass of the atmosphere is
found with in approximately 30 km of the earth’s surface.
• The total masses of the global atmosphere is approximately
5 x 10 15 metric tones which is roughly one millionth of the
earth’s total mass
• The characteristics of the atmosphere vary greatly, with
altitude, time (season), location (latitude), and even solar
activity.
• Temperature in the atmosphere may vary from as low as
the –92o C to over 1200o C. Atmospheric pressure drops
from 1 atm. at sea level to 3.0 x 10-7atm at 100 km above
sea level.
 Major Regions of The Atmosphere
• The earth’s atmosphere is a gaseous blanket around the earth
which is divided into the five regions based on certain
intrinsic features
• These five regions are
• (i)Troposphere,
• (ii)Stratosphere,
• (iii)Mesosphere,
• (iv)Ionosphere or Thermosphere and
• (v)Exosphere.
There is no sharp distinction between these regions
and each region gradually merges with the neighboring
regions.
Region Altitude range Km Temperature range o Significant chemical
species

Troposphere 0 – 11 15 to -56 N2, O2, CO2, H2O

Stratosphere 11 – 50 -56 to –2 O3

Mesosphere 50 -85 -2 to –92 O2+, NO+

Thermosphere 85 -500 -92 to 1200 O2+, O+, NO+

 Troposphere
• The lowest layer of earth from sea level is called the
troposphere
• This is the region closest to the earth’s surface. It is
characterized by turbulent conditions of air.
• It contains 75% of the atmosphere's mass and 99% of the total
mass of water vapour and aerosols..
• Density decreases exponentially with increasing altitude.
• The water content also varies because of cloud formation,
precipitation, and evaporation of water from terrestrial water
bodies.
• The temperature decreases linearly at an approximate rate of
6.5 K / km.
• The highest point of the troposphere is called tropopause.
• The height of the tropopause varies from about 9 km at the
poles to about 16 km at the equator
 Stratosphere
• The atmospheric layer directly above the troposphere is called the stratosphere.
This extends from the tropopause to about 50 km.
• Temperature remains constant up to about 20 km and then increases with
increase in altitude, with a maximum of -2 o C at the upper limit of stratosphere.
• This temperature increase is due to the presence of ozone, O 3, which may reach
a level of around 10 ppm by volume in the mid-range of the stratosphere.
• The heating effect is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation energy by
ozone.
• The ozone layer in the stratosphere thus acts as a protective shield for life on
earth from the injurious effects of sun’s ultraviolet rays and at the same time
supplies heat source.
• The residence times of molecules or particles in the stratosphere are quite long
because of slow mixing.
• If the pollutants can some how reach the stratosphere, they pose long-term
global hazards compared to their impact in the much denser troposphere.
• High velocity winds may be encountered in this region, but they are not gusty.
• The highest point of the stratosphere is called the stratopause.
 Mesosphere
• The mesosphere on the top of the stratosphere extends
roughly to 85 km.
• In this region the temperature falls with increase in
altitude, resulting in a temperature decrease to about -
90oC.
• This is due to the absence of high levels of radiation
absorbing species, particularly ozone.
• The principal chemical species in this region are O2+ and
NO+
• In the mesosphere, the pressure and density of air are very
low, but the air still retains its composition as at sea level.
• The highest point of the mesosphere is called the
mesopause.
 Thermosphere / Ionosphere
• The far outer reaches of the atmosphere above mesosphere
is called thermosphere.
• This region extends from the mesopause to about 1000 km.
• Here the atmospheric gases, particularly oxygen and nitric
oxide, split into atoms and also undergo ionisation by the
absorption of very high energy radiation of <200nm.
• It is characterized by the presence of ions and free electrons.
• The temperature increases to about 0 0C at 110 km, to about
10000C at 150 km and peak of about 1780 0C at 700 km
(Ref.2.1). Some electrical phenomena like the aurora boreal is
occur in this region
 Exosphere
• This is the outer fringe of the earth’s
atmosphere.
• Very few molecules are found in this region.
• The region gradually merges into the
interplanetary space.
 International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
• The properties of earth’s atmosphere like pressure, temperature and
density vary not only with height above the earth’s surface but also
with the location on earth, from day to day and even during the day.
• For the purpose of comparing (a) the performance of different
airplanes and (b) the performance of the same airplane measured in
flight tests on different days, a set of values for atmospheric
properties have been agreed upon, which represent average
conditions prevailing for most of the year, in Europe and North
America.
• Though the agreed values do not represent the actual conditions
anywhere at any given time, they are useful as a reference.
• This set of values called the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
is prescribed by ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization).
• It is defined by the pressure and temperature at mean sea
level, and the variation of temperature with altitude up to 32
km
• With these values being prescribed, it is possible to find the
required physical characteristics (pressure, temperature,
density etc) at any chosen altitude.
• The actual performance of an airplane is measured in flight
tests under prevailing conditions of temperature, pressure
and density.
• Methods are available to deduce, from the flight test data,
the performance of the airplane under ISA conditions.
• When this procedure is applied to various airplanes and
performance presented under ISA conditions, then
comparison among different airplanes is possible.
 Features of ISA
• The main features of the ISA are the standard sea level values and the variation
of temperature with altitude. The air is assumed as dry perfect gas. The standard
sea level conditions are as follows:
• Temperature (T0) = 288.15 K = 150C
• Pressure (P0) = 101325 N/m2 = 760 mm of Hg
• Rate of change of temperature:
• = - 6.5 K/km upto 11 km
• = 0 K/km from 11 to 20 km
• = 1 K/km from 20 to 32 km
• Atmospheric pressure will decrease by approx. 1 in-Hg for every 1,000 feet
increase in altitude Known as the LAPSE RATE
• The region of ISA from 0 to 11 km is referred to as troposphere. That between
11 to 20 km is the lower stratosphere and between 20 to 32 km is the middle
stratosphere
• Using the values of T0 and P0 , and the equation of state, p = ρRT, gives
the sea level density (ρ0) as 1.225 kg/m3.
• R= 287 J/kg K
 Hydrostatic equation
• The hydrostatic equation can be easily
derived by considering the balance of
forces on a small fluid element of area
A and height Δh
• The forces acting in the vertical
direction on the element are the
pressure forces and the weight of the
element.
• For vertical equilibrium of the element,
• pA – {p + (dp /dh) Δh} A – ρ g A Δh = 0
• Simplifying, dp /dh = - ρ g
 Variations of properties with altitude in
ISA
• For calculation of the variations of pressure, temperature
and density with altitude, the following equations are
used.
• The equation of state P = ρ R T ………. (1)
• The hydrostatic equation dp/dh = - ρ g …. (2)
• Substituting for ρ=P/RT from the Eq.(1) in Eq.(2) gives:
• dp / dh = -(p/RT) g
• Or (dp/p) = -g dh/RT …. (3)
• Equation (3) is solved separately in troposphere and
stratosphere, taking into account the temperature
variations in each region
• In the troposphere, the variation of temperature with altitude is
given by the equation
• T = T0 – λ h …….(4)
• λ is the temperature lapse rate in the troposphere.
• Substituting from Eq.(4) in Eq.(3) gives:
• (dp /p) = - gdh /R (T0 – λ h) .......(5)
• Taking ‘g’ as constant, Eq.(5) can be integrated between two
altitudes h1 and h2. Taking h1 as sea level and h2 as the desired
altitude (h),
• (P/ P0) = (T/ T0)(g/λR) ……..(6)
• where T is the temperature at the desired altitude (h) given by Eq.
(4)
• Equation (6) gives the variation of pressure with altitude.
• The variation of density with altitude can be obtained using Eq.(6) and the
equation of state. (ρ/ρ0) = (P/ P0) (T/T0)-1
• The resulting variation of density with temperature in the troposphere is
given by:
• (ρ/ρ0) = (T/T0)(g/λR)-1 ……(7)
• Thus, both the pressure and density variations are obtained once the
temperature variation is known.
• As per the ISA, R = 287.05287 m2sec-2 K-1 and g = 9.80665 m/s2.
• Using these and λ = 0.0065 K/m in the troposphere yields (g/Rλ) as
5.25588.
• Thus, in the troposphere, the pressure and density variations are :
• (P/ P0) = (T/T0)5.25588 ……. (8)
• (ρ/ρ0) = (T/T0)4.25588 ……..
(9)
• T= 288.15 - 0.0065 h ; h in m and T in K.
• In order to obtain the variations of properties in the lower stratosphere (11to 20
km altitude), the previous analysis needs to be carried-out afresh with λ = 0
• i.e., ‘T’ having a constant value equal to the temperature at 11 km (T = 216.65 K).
• From this analysis the pressure and density variations in the lower stratosphere
are obtained as
• (P / P11) = (ρ / ρ11) = exp { -g (h - 11000) / RT11 } …..(10)
• where P11, ρ11 and T11 are the pressure, density and temperature respectively at 11
km altitude.
• In the middle stratosphere (20 to 32 km altitude), it can be shown that (note in this
case λ = -0.001 K / m):
• (P / P20) = (T/T20)(g/λR) = (T / T20)- 34.1632 …….(11)
• (ρ / ρ20) =(T/T0)(g/λR)-1 = (T/ T20)- 35.1632 …….(12)
• where P20, ρ20 and T20 are pressure, density and temperature respectively at20 km
altitude.
 IIT Kanpur
11 to 25 isotherm
25 to 47 λ =3
 Correction
• In the middle stratosphere (25 to 47 km altitude), it
can be shown that (note in this case λ = -0.003 K /
m):
• (P / P25) = (T / T25)- 11.38773959 …….(11)
• (ρ / ρ25) = (T/ T25)- 12.38773959 …….(12)
• where P20, ρ20 and T20 are pressure, density and
temperature respectively at20 km altitude.
• *range 20 to 25 or 32 or35 λ =1
• 35 to 47 λ =3
Eqn 5 to 6
Eqn 10
 Equations
• P=ρRT …………… (1)
• dp/dh = - ρ g ………. (2)
• (dp/p) = -g dh/RT ….. (3)
• T = T0 – λ h …(4)
• (dp /p) = - gdh /R (T0 – λ h) ......(5)
• (P/ P0) = (T/ T0)(g/λR) ……..(6)
• (ρ/ρ0) = (T/T0)(g/λR)-1 ……(7)
• (P/ P0) = (T/T0)5.25588 …….. (8)
• (ρ/ρ0) = (T/T0)4.25588 ……..
(9)
• From 11km to 20 km (11-25) T is constant
• (P / P11) = (ρ / ρ11) = exp { -g (h - 11000) / RT11 } …..(10)
• From 20 to 32 km λ = -0.001 K/m {(25-47) λ = -0.003 K/m}
• (P/P20) = (T/T20)(g/λR) =(T/T20)- 34.1632 …….(11)
• (ρ /ρ20) =(T/T0)(g/λR)-1 = (T/ T20)- 35.1632 …….(12)
Q1Calculate the temperature (T), pressure (p), density
(ρ ), in ISA at altitudes of 8 km, 16 km and 24 km.
• It may be noted that the three altitudes specified in this
example, viz.8 km, 16 km and 24 km, lie in troposphere,
lower stratosphere and middle stratosphere regions of
ISA respectively.
• (a) h = 8 km
• Let the quantities at 8 km altitude be denoted by the
suffix ‘8’.
• In troposphere: T = T0 -λh
• where, T0 = 288.15 K, λ = 0.0065 K/m
• Hence T8 = 288.15 - 0.0065 X 8000 = 236.15K
Thank you for your attention.

Chithrakumar V.K. SCTCE