Chapter 1: Introduction to Microprocessors

Computer system and Number systems

(Revision?)
Fundamentals of Microprocessor and
Microcomputers
How microprocessor works
Microprocessor vs microcontrollers
 Evolution of Microprocessors
---1st , 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th generations
---History of Microprocessors
Wogayehu A@2023/24
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2022

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Fundamentals of Microprocessor and microcomputers
• What is Microprocessor? Why we learn microprocessor?
-It
3 is an integrated circuit that performs the core functions of computers.

• Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated

on a small chip capable of performing ALU operations and
communicating with the other devices connected to it.
 Can be split into “Micro” and “Processor”
 Micro--The word “micro” means the level of size used to fabricate
an integrated chip (IC) i.e., a micro meter scale (size).
 Processor--The word “processor” means the device that processes
the data, especially digital data (1’s and 0’s).
 To process means to manipulate i.e., to do some arithmetic and
logical operations.
 How does Microprocessor Work?
• Microprocessor– a digital device on a chip which can fetch

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instructions from a memory, decode and execute them i.e. performs
certain arithmetic and logical operations, accept data from input
device, and send results to output devices.
 The Process through which the processor controls the
execution of instructions is referred as the fetch-decode-
execute cycle or instruction cycle.
 It consists of three steps
• Fetching
• Decoding
• Executing
 How does Microprocessor Work?.....
• A microprocessor accepts binary data as input, decode it, processes

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that data, and then provides output based on the instructions stored in
the memory.
• FETCH-DECODE-EXECUTE principle---Instruction Cycle
• Blockdiagram below shows working principles of CPU, 3 main buses
 How does Microprocessor Work?.....
It consists of three steps
1. Fetching the instruction from memory
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 Everything stored in memory is 0s and 1s
 When you write programs or instructions on your keyboard it is
stored as 0s and 1s. Who converts it?
2. Decoding or identifying the instruction
 Understanding the opcode-the processor need to know what to do
on the binary opcode.
 Understanding what to do
 Do you think that decode step is converting data into 0s & 1s?

3. Executing the instruction

 Doing the operation
 Triggering the ALU ckt
 What is Microcomputer?
• Microcomputer
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 Microprocessor, by-itself, completely useless – must
have external peripherals to Interact with outside
world.
 A microprocessor interfaced with memory and Input/ Output
devices forms a Microcomputer.
 The basic building blocks of microcomputers
 Microprocessor/CPU
o Arithmetic and Logical Unit  Peripheral Unit  Memory
o Input Unit
o Control Unit o output o RAM
o Register Array o Rom
 What is Microcomputer?.....

•8 Components of Microcomputer
 Input Unit
 Through this unit data and instructions are fed to the memory of
the computer.
 The basic purpose of this unit is to read the data into the
machine.
 The program from the memory is read into the machine along
with the input data which are required to solve or compute the
problem by the machine.
 Components of microcomputer
 Memory Unit
 The memory unit of a digital computer consists of devices
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which are capable of storing information.
 The memory of a computer is used for storing two distinct type
of information such as data to be processed by the computer and
program through which the result of the desired problem is
obtained.
 Computer program and data are stored in the Memory Unit.
RAM: Random Access Memory
• is used by the computer for temporary storage of programs that it is running.
• User Memory
• Working memory of the CPU
• Can be altered
 What is Microcomputer… cont’d
ROM: Read only Memory
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o Used to store programs that do not need changes, Can not be altered
o At the time of manufacturing of the computer/microprocessor, in that ROM;
the programs that are used by the computer/microprocessor for its
functioning; those programs are stored in the ROM.

 Memory- everything inside the memory is either data or programs

 How do we store data (word documents/Images/videos/audios) in
memory? CD?
 Two types RAMs:- SRAM and DRAM
 SRAM uses flip-flops to store data where as DRAM uses
capacitors to store data.
 SRAM is faster than DRAM why?
 What is Microcomputer… cont’d
•11 Components of Microcomputer
 Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU)
 This unit is used for performing arithmetic operations such as
Addition, Subtraction, Multiplications, division and other logical
operations such as logical AND, OR, XOR, NOR, NAND…..on
the data.
 The control unit guides ALU which of the operations are to be
performed.
 The sequence of the instructions is controlled by the control unit.
 What is Microcomputer… cont’d
• Microcomputer
12  Control Unit
 It controls all other units and also controls the flow of data from
one unit to another for performing computations.
 It also sequences the operations.
 It instructs all the units to perform the task in a particular
sequence with the help of clock pulses (timing/synchronization)
o Keeps all other parts of the systems ( registers, ALU,
Memory and I/O) working together in right time sequence.
o It provides the necessary timing and control signals to all
the operations.
o Signals that activate ALU to function.
 What is Microcomputer… cont’d

•13 Suppose there are 10 instructions written in the program and there
after the execution of 4 instructions some data has been produced or
some output has been produced which has to be used in the remained
program.
• So that intermediate result is going to be temporarily stored in some
storing components i.e., Register Array.

 Output Unit of a microcomputer

 After processing of the data in the Arithmetic and Logical Unit,
the results are displayed to the output world through this unit.
Interconnections of the basic components
• Interconnections
 The CPU is connected to memory and I/O through strips
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of wire called a bus --- to form a microcomputer.

 Address Bus
 Data Bus
 Control Bus

 Bus is a communication line used to transfer information.

 These buses and control lines originate from the CPU, which is in
charge of the system.
 How to transfer 0s and 1s over the bus?
by Fluctuating between VCC and Ground
1 line can transmit 1 bit at a time, so if you want to transmit 8 bits
you need 8 lines so on…
Interconnections of the basic components
• Interconnections

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 Data Bus − Lines that carry data to and from memory are called data
bus. It is a bidirectional bus with width equal to word length of the
microprocessor.
 Address Bus − It is a unidirectional, responsible for carrying address
of a memory location or I/O port from CPU to memory or I/O port.
 Control Bus − Lines that carry control signals like RD/WR signals,
clock signals, interrupt signal or ready signal are called control bus.
They are bidirectional.
 Signal that denotes a device is ready for processing is called ready
signal.
 Signal that indicates to a device to interrupt its process is called an
interrupt signal.
Interconnections of the basic components
 Address Bus −the job of address bus is to identify the locations
16  When processor wants to write on memory or IO needs 3 steps
1. 1st address bus identify the locations-- now location is known
2. Then data bus carry the information---here you know the data
3. 3rd step the processor has to indicate to read a data or write the data
which will be done by control bus– now it is write to memory/io
who is writing memory/io/processor?

When processor wants to read from memory or IO 3 steps

4. Address bus identify the locations
5. Control bus—b/c here you don’t know the data just you want to take it –
signal sent I want to read
6. Data bus carries the data to the cpu
Difference b/n Microprocessor and Microcontroller
• Both of them have been designed for real time application.
•17 They share many common features and at the same time they have significant
differences.
• Both the IC’s i.e., the microprocessor and microcontroller cannot be distinguished
by looking at them.
• Microprocessor cannot be used stand alone. They need other peripherals like RAM,
ROM, buffer, I/O ports etc and hence a system designed around a microprocessor
is quite costly.

• Microprocessor: is a single chip consists of; ALU, Registers and Timing and
Control Circuit
• Microcontroller: It is integrated electronic computing device that includes three
major components on a single chip; Microprocessor, Memory, I/O ports
 Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller…….
• Microprocessor is an IC which has only the CPU inside them i.e. only the
processing powers such as Intel’s Pentium 1,2,3,4, core 2 duo, i3, i5, i7
18 etc.

• These microprocessors don’t have RAM, ROM, and other peripheral on

the chip.
• A system designer has to add them externally to make them functional.

• But this is not the case with Microcontrollers.

• Microcontroller has a CPU, in addition with a fixed amount of RAM,
ROM and other peripherals all embedded on a single chip.
• At times it is also termed as a mini computer or a computer on a single
chip.
o Today different manufacturers produce microcontrollers with a wide range of
features available in different versions.
o Some manufacturers are ATMEL, Microchip, TI, Freescale, Philips, Motorola,

Intel etc.
Applications of Microprocessors/Microcontroller
Microprocessors are used for applications where tasks are unspecific like
developing software, games, websites, photo editing, creating documents
etc.
• Communication equipment such as servers, Switches, routers,
workstations, television, satellite communication so on………..
• Tablets
• Phones
Microcontrollers used for dedicated/specific tasks
• Home appliances, such as microwave oven, washing machine, gaming
machines (PS), baby monitors, refrigerator ….
• Calculators
• Accounting system
• Traffic light Control
• TV remote, keyboard, mouse
• Military applications
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• ETC.
 Evolution of Microprocessor
First Generation (1971 to 1972)
4-bit microprocessors
Second Generation (1973 to 1978)
8-bit microprocessors
Third Generation (1979 to 1980)
16-bit microprocessors
Fourth Generation (1981 to 1995)
32-bit microprocessors
Fifth Generations (1995 till now)
64-bit microprocessors
Microprocessor is scaling from 4004 to Core i7, 9.
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Development of Intel Microprocessors History
• 4004-1971
• 8008-1972
• 8080-1974
• 8085-1976 first commercial, standard, complete and well crafted microprocessor
• 8086 – 1979 this is where we are studying now-complete, powerful, standard, comm..
• 80286 - 1982
• 80386 - 1985
• 80486 - 1989
• Pentium - 1993 In the evolution
• Pentium Pro - 1995  Functionality has become better
• Pentium MMX -1997  Speed of the CPU become faster
• Pentium II - 1997  Size compacted/reduced
•  Computational progress
Pentium II Celeron - 1998
becomes faster, smaller, more
• Pentium II Zeon - 1998
efficient
• Pentium III - 1999
• Pentium III Zeon - 1999
• Pentium IV - 2000
• Pentium IV Zeon – 2001
• C2D
• Ci3
• Ci5 21
•
  Introduced in 1971.
Intel 4004  It was the first microprocessor by Intel.
 It was a 4-bit µP.
 Had 4 bit data bus
 Its clock speed was 740KHz.
 had 12-bit addresses for programs
 640 bytes data memory
 It had 2,300 transistors.
 It could execute around 60,000
instructions per second.
 had a separate memory for both data
and program.
 16 pin dual inline package hw spec 22
8-bit Microprocessors
What is 8-bit microprocessor
means?
Its data bus is 8-bit wide and hence, 8 bits
of data can be transmitted in parallel from
or to the microprocessor.

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  Introduced in 1972.
Intel 8008  It was the first 8-bit µP.
 It was 8 bit data bus
 It was 14 bit address bus
 Can access 16 KB of memory
 Its clock speed was 500 KHz
 Could execute 50,000 instructions
per second. Average?????
 Sometimes multiple instructions are completed in
a single clock cycle and sometimes one instn. may
be handled over multiple clock cycles.

 14-bit program counter (PC)?

 It had 3,500 transistors.
Intel 8080
 Introduced in 1974.
 It was also 8-bit µP.
 It was 8 bit data bus
 It was 16 bit address bus
 Can access 64 KB of memory
 Its clock speed was 2 MHz.
 It had 6,000 transistors.
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 Introduced by Intel in 1976. The first
commercial & well crafted standard.
 It was also 8-bit µP.
 Its clock speed was 3 MHz.
 Its data bus is 8-bit
 Address bus is 16-bit.
 It had 6,500 transistors.
 Could execute 769,230
instructions per second.
 It could access 64 KB of memory.
 It had 246 opcode instructions.
 PC 16 bit register?
 B, C, D, E, H, L 8 bit registers? 26
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16-bit Microprocessors

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  Introduced in 1978.
 It was first 16-bit µP.
 Its clock speed is 4.77 MHz, 8 MHz and 10 MHz,
INTEL 8086 depending on the version.
 Its data bus is 16-bit
 address bus is 20-bit.
 16-bit I/O address, hence it can access 2 power
16 =65536 I/O ports
 It had 29,000 transistors.
 Could execute 2.5 million instructions
per second.
 It could access 1 MB of memory.
 It had 22,000 instructions.
 It had Multiply and Divide
instructions.
The 8086 provides fourteen 16-bit
INTEL 8088
 Introduced in 1979.

 It was also 16-bit µP.

 It was created as a cheaper

version of Intel’s 8086.

 It was a 16-bit processor with an 8-

bit external bus.

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8086 Major Improvements over 8085/88 Microprocessors

8086 major improvement over the 8080/8085

♣ The 8086 has 1M memory capacity while 8080/8085 has 64K
♣ The 8086 is a 16 bit microprocessor which can access 16bit at a time
♣ The 8086 was a pipelining processor as opposed to the nonpipelined
8080/8085.
♣ In a system with pipelining, the data and address buses are busy in
transferring data while the CPU is processing information
8086 vs 8088
♣ Internally, the 8088 is essentially the same as the 8086
♣ Externally, the 8086 has a 16bit data bus while the 8088 has 8bit
♣ The 8086 also has a faster clock rate and better performance
♣ The 8088 is less expensive than 8086
♣ The 8086 and 8088 have the same instruction set
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INTEL 80186 & 80188
 Introduced in 1982.
 They were 16-bit µPs.
 Clock speed was 6 MHz.
 80188 was a cheaper
version of 80186 with an 8-
bit external data bus.

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INTEL 80286
 Introduced in 1982.
 It was 16-bit µP.
 Its clock speed was 8
MHz.
 Its data bus is 16-bit and
address bus is 24- bit.
 It could address 16 MB of
memory.

 It had 134,000 21
transistors.
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 The 80286 Microprocessors

The main features of 80286 microprocessor

♣ Two mode of operation, real mode or protected mode. In protected
mode, the 80286 supports multitasking which is the ability to
execute several programs at the same time
♣ More memory capacity (224 = 16megabytes)
♣ Virtual memory in protected mode.
♣ The processor 286 can treat external storage (HD) as if it were
physical memory up to 1 gigabyte (230 byte) [1]

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Next
George Moor’s Law
‘When you have the more transistors can be fitted on
the chip, computational progress become significantly
faster, smaller and more efficient over time”

“In every two years the number of transistors on

microchips will double to enhance the performance of
processor.”

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32-BIT
MICROPROCESSORS

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  Introduced in 1986.

INTEL 80386  It was first 32-bit µP.

 Its data bus is 32-bit and address
bus is 32- bit.
 It could address 4 GB of memory.
 It had 275,000
transistors.
 Its clock speed varied from 16 MHz
to 33 MHz depending upon the
various versions.

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 80386 Microprocessors
The main features of 80386 microprocessor
♣ The 80386 also can operate in either real or protected mode.
♣ More memory capacity data bus 32bit (232 = 4gigabytes)
♣ Virtual memory in protected mode up to 64 terabyte (2 46 byte) [1]
♣ The 80386SX microprocessor has the same internal structure as
386 but it has only a 16 bit external data bus and 24 bit address
bus (16`MB)

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Next
  Introduced in 1989.
INTEL 80486
 It was also 32-bit µP.
 It had 1.2 million
transistors.
 Its clock speed varied
from 16 MHz to 100
MHz depending upon
the various versions.
 8 KB of cache memory
was introduced.

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 80486 Microprocessors

The main features of 80486 microprocessor

♣ The 80486 also is 32 bit microprocessor.
♣ The 80486 has a numeric coprocessor 80487 and cash memory
♣ The 80486SX microprocessor has the same internal structure as
486DX but without coprocessor

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Next
  Introduced in 1993.
INTEL PENTIUM
 It was also 32-bit µP.

 It was originally named

80586.

 Its clock speed was 66

MHz.

 Its data bus is 32-bit and

address bus is 32- bit.

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INTEL PENTIUM PRO
 Introduced in 1995.
 It was also 32-bit µP.
 It had 21 million
transistors.
 Cache memory:
 8 KB for
instructions.
 8 KB for data.

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INTEL PENTIUM II
 Introduced in 1997.
 It was also 32-bit µP.
 Its clock speed was 233
MHz to 500 MHz.
 Could execute 333 million
instructions per second.

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INTEL PENTIUM II XEON
 Introduced in 1998.

 It was also 32-bit µP.

 It was designed for

servers.

 Its clock speed was 400

MHz to 450 MHz.

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INTEL PENTIUM III
 Introduced in 1999.
 It was also 32-bit µP.
 Its clock speed varied
from 500 MHz to 1.4
GHz.
 It had 9.5 million
transistors.

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INTEL PENTIUM IV
 Introduced in 2000.

 It was also 32-bit µP.

 Its clock speed was from

1.3 GHz to 3.8 GHz.

 It had 42 million
transistors.

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64-BIT
MICROPROCESSORS

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Intel Core 2 Intel Core i3

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 Summary of 8086 family Microprocessors
The Intel 8086 family microprocessors includes the 8086, 8088,
80186, 80286, 80386, 80386sx, 80486, and 804 86sx
Evolution of Intel’s Microprocessors
80486 80386 80286 8088 8086 8085 8080 Product

1989 1985 1982 1979 1978 1976 1974 Year introduced

25-50 16-23 6-16 5-8 5-10 3-8 2-3 Clock Rate (MHz)

1.2million 275000 130000 29000 29000 6500 6000 No. Transistors

4G 4G 16M 1M 1M 64K 64K Physical Memory

32 32 16 16 16 8 8 Internal data bus

32 32 16 8 16 8 8 External data bus

32 32 24 20 20 16 16 Address bus

8, 16, 32 8, 16, 32 8, 16 8, 16 8, 16 8 8 Data type (bits)

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Thank You
an end

Wogayehu A.@2023/24
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