Methods of

Philosophizing
Ask?
Philosophizing
•To think or express oneself
in a philosophical manner
•It considers or discusses a
(matter) from a
philosophical standpoint.
A. Phenomenology:
On Consciousness
Edmund Husserl
•“Phenomenon” – Greek
(phainomenon) = “appearance”
•The truth is based on the person’s
consciousness
•Focuses on careful inspection and
description of phenomena or
appearances, defined as any object of
conscious experience, that is, that we
are conscious of.
•The scientific study of the
essential structures of
consciousness
•The thesis that
consciousness is
intentional
 Phenomenological
reductions and their shifts
1.Epoche or “suspension”
brackets all the
questions of truth and
reality and simply
describes the contents of
consciousness. Libra
2. Focuses on the
essential features,
the meaning of
consciousness
Libra
3. What interests the
phenomenologists are
the contents of
consciousness, not the
things of the natural
world as such Libra
B. Existentialism: On
Freedom
Soren Kierkegaard and Nietzsche
•Truth is based on
exercising choices and
personal freedom
•One’s search for truth
might be based on one’s
attitude or outlook.
Doctrines centered on certain
common themes
1.Human condition or
relation of individuals
2.Human response to that
condition Libra
3. Being, especially the
difference between the
being of person and
being the other kinds of
things
4. Human freedom Libra
5. Significance of choice and
decision in the absence of
certainty
6. Concreteness and subjectivity
of life as lived, against
abstractions and false
objectification Libra
Philosophers’ view on
Existentialism
•Soren Kierkegaard – insisted
that the authentic self was the
personally chosen self, as
opposed to public or “herd
identity”
•Nietzsche – opposition of the
genuine individual versus the
identity of “herd” identity.
•Jean–Paul Sartre – French
philosopher who emphasized
the importance of free
individual choice regardless of
the power of other people to
influence and coerce our
desires, beliefs and decisions
•Socrates – “the good of his
soul” he sought not mere
opinions but knowledge, self
knowledge in particular, and
prescribed not just right action
but virtue, being “true to
oneself”
•St. Augustine – was concerned with
the spiritual nature of the “true” self
as opposed to the inauthentic
demands of desire and the body.
•Jean–Jacques Rousseau –
essential goodness of the “natural”
self in contrast to the “corruption”
imposed by society.
C. Post Modernism:
on cultures
•It is accepted that truth is
not absolute (i.e.
cultural).
•Not philosophy: it is best
a holding pattern,
perhaps a cry of despair.
 Postmodernist believe
that humanity should come
at truth beyond the rational
to the non – rational
elements of human nature,
including the spiritual
•Postmodernist consider that to
arrive at truth, humanity should
realize the limits or reason and
objectivist
•Postmodernist adhere to a
relational, holistic approach
•Postmodernist value our existence
in the world and in relation to it.
 D. Analytic Tradition
Language cannot objectively describe truth
Ludwig Wittgenstein
•An analytic philosopher,
language is socially
conditioned
E. Logic and Critical
Thinking: Tools in
Reasoning
Two Types of Reasoning
A. Inductive reasoning – observations in
order to make generalizations often
applied in prediction, forecasting or
behavior
B. Deductive Reasoning – draws
conclusion from usually one broad
judgments or definition and one more
specific assertion, often an inference
Validity and Soundness of an Argument
Ex. All philosophers are wise. (major premise)
Confucius is a philosopher. (minor premise)
Therefore, Confucius is wise. (conclusion)
•Validity comes from a logical
conclusion based on logically
constructed premises.
Strength of an Argument
Inductive arguments
cannot prove if the
premises are true which will
also determine the truth of
the conclusion
F. Fallacies
•To detect fallacies, it is required
to examine the argument’s
content.
•Usual errors in reasoning and
thus, coming up with false
conclusion and worse, distorting
the truth.
A. Appeal to pity (argumentum
ad misericordiam)
B. Appeal to Ignorance
(Argumentum ad ignorantiam)
C. Equivocation
D. Composition
E. Division
F. Against the Person
(Argumentum ad hominem)
G. Appeal to Force
(Argumentum ad baculum)
H. Appeal to the people
(Argumentum ad populum)
I. False Cause (post hoc)
J. Hasty Generalization
K. Begging the question
(petition principii)
BIASES
A. Correspondence bias or Attribution Effect
B. Confirmation Bias
 Analyze Situations that show the
Difference between Opinion and Truth
•Applying Logic and Fallacies in
Determining Truths from Opinions
Tractatus identifies the relationship
between language and reality and to define
the limits of science. It is recognized as a
significant philosophical work of the 20th
century.
Realize The Methods Of Philosophy That
Lead To Wisdom and Truth
Double (1999) although philosophy is an organized
body knowledge, the subject matter of philosophy is
questions, which have three major characteristics;
1. Philosophical questions have answers but the
answers remain in dispute
2. Philosophical questions cannot be settled by
science, common sense, or faith.
3. Philosophical questions are perennial intellectual
interest to human beings
Critical Thinking
•Is the careful, reflective, rational and
systematic approach to questions of
very general interest.
•For Maboloc and Pascua (2008) critical
thinking is a lifelong process of self –
assessment that further consists of:
•Defining, analyzing, and devising
solutions
•Arriving at reasonable and
informed conclusions
•Applying understanding and
knowledge to new and different
problems
•Willingness to change
one point of view
•Continually examining
and re – examining ideas
•Willingness to say “I don’t
know.”
Attributes of a Critical Thinker
•Looks for evidence to support
assumptions and beliefs
•Adjust opinion
•Looks for proof
•Examines the problem
•Rejects irrelevant and innocent
information
Evaluate Opinions
• An opinion can be a belief or judgment that rests
on grounds insufficient to produce complete
certainty. It is a personal view, attitude or appraisal
or personal feelings.
• Asking relevant questions – assessing
• Arguments or statements – looking for
• Evidence assumption or beliefs – deciding
• rationally what to believe or not important to
evaluate opinions.