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Note 6

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14 views13 pages

Note 6

Uploaded by

Fariha Tasnim
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Note-6

TRANSDUCERS
Introduction

• Physical parameters to be measured are most of the time


‘non-
electrical’.

• Non-electrical quantities are converted into electrical


quantities for better measurements. This is because electrical
methods of measurement (sensing, signal conditioning,
transmission, indication) are much more advantageous than
other methods (e.g. mechanical and chemical).

• Process of converting one form of energy into another is


called ‘Transduction’, and the device that performs this
function is called a ‘Transducer’.
• The devices which converts other forms of energy into electrical forms
are called ‘Electrical Transducers’

However, with reference to this course, when we say ‘transducer’,


it refers to ‘electrical transducer’.

A nice definition:
‘A transducer is a device which, when actuated by energy in
oneform, produces an electrical output energy ’
Advantages of Electrical Transducers

The advantages of converting physical quantities into electrical


quantitiesare:
1. Electrical amplification and attenuation can be done easily and with
static devices
2. The mass-inertia effects are minimized.
3. Effects of friction are minimized
4. Can be controlled with a very small power level
5. Output can be easily used, transmitted, stored and processed
6. Telemetry is used in almost all sophisticated measurement systems. The
entire aerospace research and development is based upon telemetry and
remote control. Mechanical transmission would not make this possible.
7. Miniaturization is possible by the use of ICs
Classification of Transducers

Can be classified according to their applications, method of


energy conversion, nature of output signal and so on.

 A classification can be done based on the electrical circuit


parameter
that is meant to be changed due to the presence of the measurand:

1. Resistive transducers
2. Capacitive transducers
3. Inductive transducers
4. Voltage and Current transducers
Another Classification

Primary transducers
Transducers that sense a physical phenomenon at the first stage of detection
and convert it to electrical signal; e.g. thermocouple

Secondary transducers
The physical phenomenon is first sensed by a non-electrical transducer. It’s
output is then converted into an electrical signal by an electrical transducer.
This second transducer is called secondary transducer.
For example: in one type of pressure meter, a mechanical tube (Bourdon tube)
first converts the pressure to be measured into an analogous displacement. It is
then sensed by an electrical transducer which is called secondary transducer.
Resistive
Transducers
Transducers that employ change in resistance of an sensing element is
called resistive transducer.
Resistive transducers are preferred over transducers employing other
principles.

The well-known equation of resistance of a resistor R  L


A
element:
Working basis: any combination of the 3 quantities are affected by the
measurand
For example: temperature can change ρ; strain can change ρ, L
and A, altogether
Applications:
Measurement of temperature, strain, displacement, force, pressure
etc.
Example: Strain
Gauge
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, both L and A change, so its R
changes.

Also ρ can change. This property is called piezo-resistive effect. So, resistance
strain gauges are also known as piezo-resistive gauges.

Theory of Strain Gauges:


Resistance of an unstrained R  L
A
wire,
Let a tensile stress s be applied to the wire. This causes a positive
longitudinal strain and negative lateral strain.
Let, ΔL= change in length, ΔA=change in area, ΔD=change in diameter and
ΔR= change in resistance
Differentiating R w.r.t s, we
have,

dR  ρ L  ρL A  L
ρ ds
1 dR  1 L  1 A A 1sρ
A s 2
(1)
R ds LAs A ss ρ s
Dividing πD
Area, Aboth , byR,
sides
2

4
So, A  π
s 2. 4 D. s
D
2 D
1 A
Or, A s  D s (2
)

Now, equation (1) can be written


as,

1 dR  1 L  2 D  1 ρ
R ds L s D s ρ s
Now Poisson's
ratio, Lateral Strain
ν 
D/D, Or, D / D   L /
Longitudinal Strain L
L/L

 1 dR  1 L  ν 2 L  1 ρ
R ds L s L s
For small variation,
ρ s theabove relation can be written
as :
ΔR  ΔL  2ν ΔL  Δρ
R L L ρ

Gauge Factor, f  ΔR/R


G ΔL/L
We Know, ΔL/L  longitudinal strain ε
Δρ/ρ
 Gf  1  2ν
 ΔL/L
If the piezo-resistive effect is negligible, the gauge factor G f  1 2ν
is,

The Poisson’s ratio for all metals is between 0 and 0.5

Unit of strain is microstrain


1 microstrain = 1µm/m
Many types of strain gauges are there. A bonded wire strain gauge is shown
here.

Measurement of resistance: can be done by bridges (e.g. Wheatstone


bridge)
Applications

For example:
1. Structural stress analysis
-e.g., smart bridges. In order to keep bridges in good
conditions, engineers use strain gauges on bridges to
monitor stresses on weak points of a bridge.
-A bridge can have hundreds of sensors to supervise
its stress levels at hundreds of points of the bridge

2. Measurement of force, pressure, flow etc.


-indirectly measures the force/pressure through
the material strain.

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