HEREDITY2

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in humans and almost all
other organisms.
Genes are made up of DNA.

essential roles in all cells and viruses. A
major function of nucleic acids involves
the storage and expression of genomic
information. Deoxyribonucleic acid, or
DNA, encodes the information cells
need to make proteins.
other organisms. Nearly every cell in a
person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA
is located in the cell nucleus (where it is
called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of
DNA can also be found in the mitochondria
(where it is called mitochondrial DNA or
mtDNA).
made up of four chemical bases:
1. adenine (A)
2. guanine (G)
3. cytosine (C)
4. thymine (T)
DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base
pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule.
Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are
arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of
the double helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladder’s
rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the vertical sidepieces of the
ladder.
Unlike DNA, however, RNA is most
often single-stranded. An RNA
molecule has a backbone made of
alternating phosphate groups and the
sugar ribose, rather than the
deoxyribose found in DNA.
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Different types of RNA exist in cells:
messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA).
In addition, some RNAs are involved in

regulating gene expression. Certain viruses
use RNA as their genomic material.
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identical DNA molecules. DNA replication is
one of the most basic processes that occurs
within a cell. Each time a cell divides, the
two resulting daughter cells must contain
exactly the same genetic information, or
DNA, as the parent cell. To accomplish this,
each strand of existing DNA acts as a
template for replication.
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This RNA copy, called messenger RNA
(mRNA), carries the genetic information
needed to make proteins in a cell. It
carries the information from the DNA
in the nucleus of the cell to the
cytoplasm, where proteins are made.
In biology, translation is the process in
living cells in which proteins are produced
using RNA molecules as templates. The
generated protein is a sequence of amino
acids. This sequence is determined by
the sequence of nucleotides in the RNA.
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PROCESSES OF
REPLICATION,
TRANSCRIPTION,
TRANSLATION?
DNA-damaging agents in the environment.
Mutations can be harmful, beneficial, or have no
effect. If they occur in cells that make eggs or
sperm, they can be inherited; if mutations occur
in other types of cells, they are not inherited.
Certain mutations may lead to cancer or other
diseases. A mutation is sometimes called a
variant.
1. TRANSLOCATION
2. DELETION
3. INVERSION
What Is a Translocation Mutation? A change in
chromosome structure and content caused by
translocation is a translocation mutation. Many
genes may be transferred between chromosomes.
Such translocation mutations can cause disorders
of growth, development, and function of the
body's cells and systems.
2. DELETION
A deletion, as related to genomics, is a type of mutation
that involves the loss of one or more nucleotides from a
segment of DNA. A deletion can involve the loss of any
number of nucleotides, from a single nucleotide to an
entire piece of a chromosome.
3. INVERSION
An inversion mutation is one type of mutation.
Inversion mutations occur when a section of DNA
breaks away from a chromosome during the
reproductive process and then reattaches to the
chromosome in reversed order. This changes the genetic
code and can make it more difficult to read.
AND
EVOLUTION
variability of life on Earth.
Biodiversity is a measure of
variation at the genetic, species,
and ecosystem levels.
generations and relies on the process of
natural selection. The theory of
evolution is based on the idea that all
species are related and gradually
change over time.
petrified wood and DNA remnants. The totality of
fossils is known as the fossil record.
Most fossils were commonly found in

sedimentary rocks. They were from
the hard parts of the organism like
woody stem, bones, or teeth
1. Imprints are shallow external
molds left by animal or plant
tissues with little or no organic
materials present.
2. Compression is the other side
with more organic material.
Homologous structures may perform
different functions in the species living
in the different environment, or it may
have the same origin but different
functions.
similar functions but different
origin.

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Genes are made up of DNA.

In addition, some RNAs are involved in

Most fossils were commonly found in

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