FIRE BEHAVIOR

AND
ARSON INVESTIGATION
The Nature of Fire

Often a misconception is fire burns the actual

chair or piece of wood. It is the gases given off by an
object that burns. Heat causes objects to give off these
flammable gasses. When the gasses reach their ignition
temperature you see the light given off during the
oxidation known as fire. Fire itself generates more heat to
the object and thus an endless cycle begins until all of the
gases have been exhausted from man object. Then the
remaining particles or ash are what is left.
 Pyrolysis defined:
The chemical process whereby fire consumes the most solid
part of the fuel. It is the thermal decomposition of a solid
fuel through the action of heat.

The Process of Pyrolysis:

o The fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire
point;
o Decomposition takes place - moisture in the fuel is
converted into vapour;
o Decomposition produces combustible vapours that rise to
the surface of the fuel. These combustible vapours are
technically termed as free-radicals;
o Free-radicals undergo combustion if proper amount of
oxygen is present.
A PICTURE IS WORTH A THOUSAND WORDS
 The Most Common Type of Free-radicals (combustion
vapours):

1. Hydrogen gas
2. Carbon Monoxide
3. Carbon Dioxide
4. Nitrogen
 Pyrolysis defined:
The chemical process whereby fire consumes the most solid
part of the fuel. It is the thermal decomposition of a solid
fuel through the action of heat.

The Process of Pyrolysis:

o The fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire
point;
o Decomposition takes place - moisture in the fuel is
converted into vapour;
o Decomposition produces combustible vapours that rise to
the surface of the fuel. These combustible vapours are
technically termed as free-radicals;
o Free-radicals undergo combustion if proper amount of
oxygen is present.
Wool, silk, urethane, polymides, and acrylics. These gases are
also used as a fumigant which can pose serious danger to
firefighters working in recently fumigated buildings.
Hydrogen cyanide smells like bitter almonds which may not
be easily detected.
3. Hydrogen Chloride (HCL) - a gas which can be fatal after
only a few breaths, is produced in fires involving chloride-
containing plastic. Plastics can be found anywhere; from
furnishing to electrical insulation, conduct, and piping.

2. Flame – The luminous body of a burning gas which gets

hotter and less luminous when mixed with more oxygen.
Flame fades when carbon burns completely, so flame is
considered a product of incomplete combustion. It is the
manifestation of fire when the fire is in its gas phased
combustion.
Flame Defined
A flame is the visible (light-emitting) part of a fire. It is caused
by a highly exothermic reaction (for a self-sustaining
oxidation example, combustion, reaction) taking place in a
thin zone. If a fire is hot enough to ionize the gaseous
components, it can become a plasma.

Types of Flames:

A. According to Color and Completeness of Combustions.

1. Luminous flame a reddish-orange in color; it deposits soot

because it is a product of incomplete combustion; it has
lower temperature.
2. Non-luminous Flame – bluish in color; it does not deposit
soot because bits is a product of complete combustion; it
has a higher temperature than luminous flame.
B. According to Burning Fuel and Air Mixture:

1. Premixed flame – example of Bunsen Burner

2. Diffusion flame – example of flame of the oxyacetylene torch
(diffused-dispersed; widely spread).
C. Based on Smoothness:
1. Laminar flame – (smooth flame) flame is laminar when a
particle follows a smooth path through a gaseous flame.
C. Based on Smoothness:
2. Turbulent flame – (rough flame) those having unsteady,
irregular swirls and eddies.
3. Heat – a form of energy generated by the transmission of
some other form of energy.
Heat defined
A form of energy measured in
degree of temperature, it is the product of
combustion that spread the fire. It causes
burns and other injuries such as
dehydration, heat exhaustion, and
respiratory tract injuries. Heat, oxygen
depletion, and carbon monoxide
formation are the primary hazards in fire.
4. Smoke – a visible product of incomplete combustion, a
mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, CO, CO2 and finely divided
particles released from the burning material.
PROPERTIES OF FIRE:
A. Physical Properties
1. Specific gravity - the ratio of the weight of a solid or
substance to the weight of an equal volume of
water. (Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the
density of a given solid or liquid substance to the
density of water at a specific temperature and
pressure, typically at 4°C (39°F) and 1 atm (760.00
mmHg) making it a dimensionless quantity).
2. Vapor density - the weight of a volume of pure gas
compared to the weight of a volume of dry air at the
same temperature and pressure. In many web
sources, the vapor density is defined with respect to
air, not hydrogen. With this definition, the vapor
density would indicate whether a gas is denser
(greater than one) or less dense (less than one) than
air. The density has implications for container storage
and personnel safety--if a container can release a
dense gas, its vapor could sink and, if flammable,
collect until it is at a concentration sufficient for
ignition.
3. Vapor pressure - the force exerted by the molecules
on the surface of the liquid at equilibrium. The vapor
pressure of a liquid is the equilibrium pressure of a
vapor above its liquid (or solid); that is, the pressure of
the vapor resulting from evaporation of a liquid (or
solid) above a sample of the liquid (or solid) in a
closed container. The vapor pressure of a liquid is the
equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid (or
solid); that is, the pressure of the vapor resulting from
evaporation of a liquid (or solid) above a sample of
the liquid (or solid) in a closed container.
4. Temperature - the measure of thermal degree of the
agitation of molecules of a given substance; the
measure of the molecular activity within a substance.
Temperature is measured with thermometers that
may be calibrated to a variety of temperature scales.
In most of the world (except for Myanmar, Liberia and
the United States), the degree Celsius scale is used for
most temperature measuring purposes. The entire
scientific world (these countries included) measures
temperature using the Celsius scale and
thermodynamic temperature using the kelvin scale,
which is just the Celsius scale shifted downwards so
that 0 K=-273.15°C, or absolute zero.
5. Boiling point - the constant temperature at which the
vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure. The boiling point of a liquid is
the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the
liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding
the liquid. A liquid in a vacuum environment has a
lower boiling point than when the liquid is at
atmospheric pressure. A liquid in a high pressure
environment has a higher boiling point than when the
liquid is at atmospheric pressure. In other words, the
boiling point of liquids varies with and depends upon
the surrounding environmental pressure.
6. Ignition temperature or kindling temperature - the
minimum temperature to which the substance in the
air must be heated in order to initiate or cause self-
contained combustion without the addition of heat
from outside sources.
7. Fire point - the temperature at which the material will
give off ample vapours to keep burning. There is
usually about 5 to 10 degrees difference between the
flashpoint and the fire point of most materials. these
two are just a few degrees apart.
8. Flashpoint - the temperature at which a material is not
hot enough to keep burning, but still gives off enough
vapours to cause a flame to "flash" across the surface.
The term "flashpoint" is used to express the condition
of a fuel vaporizing, whether or not it is vaporizing
fast enough to keep burning.
B. Chemical Properties:
1. Endothermic reaction - are changes whereby energy
(heat) is absorbed or is added before the reaction
takes place.
2. Exothermic reaction - reactions or changes that
release or give off energy (heat) thus they produce
substances with less energy than the reactants.
3. Oxidation - a chemical change in which combustible
material (fuel) and an oxidizing agent react.
4. Combustion/flame - the manifestation of fire when
the fire is in its gas-phased combustion. A matter
that is produced by fire.
Vapor Density:
The term used to explain the weight of vapours is
"vapour density". In order to measure the weight of
these vapours we usually compare them to air, which
is considered to have a vapour density of 1.00.
Therefore, if we say that a substance has a vapour
density of 1.5, it means that it is on-and-a-half times
as heavy as air under the same conditions of pressure
and temperature.
If a substance has a vapour density of .7, it is lighter than
air, weighing only 7/10 as much as an equal volume
of air. Gases with a vapour of less than 1 will rise, and
those with vapour densities greater than 1 will fail.
 The following chart lists the Vapour
Density (air =1) for some of the more common
flammable materials:

MATERIALS VAPOUR
DENSITY
Acetylene 0.9
Butane 2.0
Gasoline 3.4
Hydrogen 0.1
JP-4 3.0
Kerosene 3.0
Propane 1.6
PHASES OF BURNING/THE THREE STAGES OF FIRE:
The methods firefighter use to extinguish a
fire will depend largely on the phase in which they
find the fire.

Factors to be considered in determining

phases of burning:
1. The amount of time the fire has burned.
2. The ventilation characteristics of the confining
structure
3. The amount and type of combustion present.
 Fires generally have three (3) progressive
stages based on the following factors:

1. Incipient/Beginning phase – it is the in initial stage of

fire.

Characteristics:
a. Normal room temperature
b. Oxygen plentiful
c. Thermal updraft rise accumulates at higher point.
d. Flame temperature of 1000 degrees F
e. Producing pyrolysis products: (CO2, CO, SO2
water vapor and other gases).
2. Free-Burning Phase – the second phase of burning in
which materials or structures are burning in the
presence of adequate oxygen.

Characteristics:
a. Fire has involved more fuel
b. Oxygen supply is depleted
c. Heat accumulates at upper area
d. Temperature exceeds 1, 300 F (705 C)
e. Area is fully involved
3. Smouldering Phase – the final phase of burning
wherin flame ceases but dense smoke and heat
completely fill the confined room.

Characteristics:
a. Flames may die and leave only glowing embers or
super heated fuel under pressure with little oxygen.
b. Intense heat will vaporize lighter fuel components,
such as hydrogen and methane, increasing the
hazard.
c. Temperature throughout the building is very high
and normal breathing is not possible.
d. Oxygen deficiency may cause back draft.
Backdraft
Firefighters operating at fires in buildings
must use precautionary measures when opening a
building to gain entry, by providing ventilation either
by horizontal/cross ventilation (opening doors or
windows) or vertical ventilation (opening a hole at the
highest portion of the affected part of the building).
As the fire grows in a confine area, large volumes of
hot, unburned fire gases can collect in unventilated
spaces. These gases may be at or above their ignition
temperature but have insufficient oxygen available to
actually ignite. Any action taken during fire fighting
operations that allows air to mix with these hot gases
can result in an explosive ignition called backdraft.
 The danger for backdraft can be minimized
with proper application of vertical ventilation causing
the unburned gases rise and release through the
opening before an entry is made.

Conditions that indicate the danger for backdraft

a. Pressurized smoke exiting small openings
b. Black smoke becoming dense grey yellow
c. Confinement and excessive heat
d. Little or no visible flame
e. Smoke leaving the building in puffs or at intervals
f. Smoke stained windows
Pre-Backdraft
Backdraft
Flashover
Flashover occurs when a room or other area is
heated enough that flames sweep over the entire
surface. Firefighters originally believed that
combustible gases released during the early stages of
the fire cause flashover by collecting at the ceiling and
mixing with air until they burst into flames.
Flashover
Flashover defined:
The point in a fire at which other
combustibles within the area ignite, changing the fire
from one object on fire to many objects on fire.
Flashover occurs with the initial ignition of the fire in
the original object, but on a much larger scale.
Combustible gases coming from the materials in a
room rise and collect at the ceiling, thus, these gases
ignite, bringing sheet of flame across the ceiling and
raising the overall temperature of the room as the
gases are consumed.
Rollover defined:
The point at which gases produced by
pyrolysis ignites. It involves only any gases and is
typified by a brief, sudden ignition in the overhead air.
If the volatile gases around the ceiling have been
disturbed through the improper cooling with water,
but not vented, ignition may occur at lower room
heights - a danger for firefighters. To avoid this to
happen, the base of the fire must first wet water
before cooling the upper levels. Open a ventilation at
ceiling heights will also help by allowing these heated
gases to escape.
Rollover
 Combustible material is grouped into one of
four classifications. These classes of fuel help to
simplify fire fighting methods and techniques.

Classification of Fire:
By knowing the classes of fire a certain
material will fall into, you will be able to make
intelligent fire fighting decisions.
A. Based on Cause:
1. Natural fire
2. Accidental fire
3. Intentional fire

B. Based on Burning Fuel

Four (4) Classes of Fire
1. Class A - Materials involving vegetable fibers,
wood, paper straw, grain, and grass; combustible
minerals such as coal and coke. Nearly all thrash fires
are considered as Class A.
Class A
2. Class B - Materials including petroleum products such
as gasoline, fuel oils, lubricating oils, and greases;
animal fats such as butter, lard, and tallow; vegetable
extracts such as alcohol, linseed oil, and turpentine;
vegetable compounds such as shortenings and
oleomargarines; natural gases and compressed gases
such as butane, propane, hydrogen, and acetylene,
Class B
3. Class C - This type of fire involves electrical motors,
Electrical appliances and apparatus. Actually a Class C
fire is composed usually of Class A and Class B
materials or a combination of both. Use of water is
usually dangerous because of the risk of electrical
shock.
Class C
4. Class D - These are materials involving combustible
metals, alloys, or metal compounds either in a solid,
semi solid or liquid state. They may further reduce in
shavings, grindings, granules, or dust. Some liquid
metals are kept in a liquid state under pressure.
Usually these liquid metals are extremely dangerous.
Some of the more unusual metals are: sodium (NA),
magnesium, titanium, sodium potassium, and
uranium as well as pyrophoric organometallic
reagents such as alkylithiums, grignards and
diethylzinc. These type of materials burn at high
temperatures and will react violently with water, air,
and/or other chemicals.
Class D
5. Class K - these are materials involved in the kitchen
fires. This classification was added to the NFPA
portable extinguishers Standard in 1998
Classification of Fire Extinguishers:
Different types of fire extinguishers are
designed to extinguish fires involving different types
of fuels. They are classified as Class A, B, C, or D (or a
combination) depending on the fire against which
their agents are effective.
The class of extinguisher should be indicated
on the extinguisher shell/container. labelling system
used is designed to make the operation "picture-
symbol" of fire extinguishers more effective and safe
to use through the use of less confusing pictorial
labels.
The system also emphasizes when not to use
an extinguisher on certain types of fires.
Extinguisher with this label is suitable for Class – A fires,
but not suitable for Class B and C fires.

Class A Extinguishers will put out fires in ordinary

combustibles, such as wood and paper. The numerical
rating for this class of fire extinguisher refers to the
amount of water the fire extinguisher holds and the
amount of fire it will extinguish.
Class B Extinguishers should be used on fires involving
flammable liquids, such as grease, gasoline, oil, etc.
The numerical rating for this class of fire extinguisher
states the approximate number of square feet of a
flammable liquid fire that a non-expert person can
expect to extinguish.
Class C Extinguishers are suitable for use on
electrically energized fires. This class of fire
extinguishers does not have a numerical rating. The
presence of the letter "C" indicates that the
extinguishing agent is non-conductive.
Class D Extinguishers are designed for use on
flammable metals and are often specific for the type
of metal in question. There is no picture designator
for Class D extinguishers. These extinguishers
generally have no rating nor they are given a multi-
purpose rating for use on other types o metal fires.
Picture-Symbol System for Fire Extinguishers:
Spontaneous Heating:
Spontaneous heating and spontaneous
ignition start as a result of a chemical reaction within
the a reaction independent of any outside source of
heat. Spontaneous heating begins a cycle of oxidation
that builds up heat very slowly in its first stage. The
condition that builds up temperature high enough to
cause ignition is called spontaneous heating. point, it
becomes spontaneous ignition. materials this process
develops slowly and does not even weeks; reach its
ignition point for days or consequently, fires may
break out today that were actually started days
before. Usually there is enough air to allow oxidation,
but not enough air to carry the heat from the area.
 Some of the common materials that may
spontaneously heated and ignited are animal oils,
mixed fish oils, linseed oil, coal, coke, charcoal,
sawdust, hay, grain and cotton.

Propagation of Fire:
Propagation of fire simply means the spread
of fire. As a substance burns, fire propagation will be
increased by the transmission of heat by nearby
materials. This condition causes additional vapors to
be released thereby spreading the fires.
Types of Heat Transmission:
1. Conduction - it is the transmission of heat
through an object /medium or conductor, such as pipe,
metal, hot-air duct, wire, or even wall.
2. Radiation - the transmission through the
discharge and spread of heat from a heated or burning
source. This radiation takes place through the air or
through space that cause another flammable object to
ignite.
3. Convection it is the transmission of heat by
the moving currents of liquid or gas. When these
gases or liquids are heated, they start to move within
themselves; and by their free motion, circulation
starts.
4. Flame Contact Heat - may be conducted from one
body to another by direct flame contact. Fire spreads
along or through burning material by flame contact.
When a material is heated to the point where
flammable vapours are released, the vapours may be
ignited. Any other flammable material may be heated
to its ignition temperature by direct contact with the
flame or burning vapours.
Flame Contact
Intensity of Fire
Intensity of fire means simply "how hot the
fire is burning." Some types of fuels naturally burn
hotter (more intensely) than others. For example, a
gasoline fire burns hotter than a wood fire, while an
acetylene flame is hotter than a gasoline flame.
Factors to determine the intensity of fire:
1. Type of fuel
2. Percentage of oxygen present
Explosive Limits
The term "explosive limits" means the amount
(expressed in percent) of fuel vapour that can be
mixed with air to form an explosive or flammable
mixture. If less that this amount is used, the mixture
will not burn. This is known as "lean" to burn. amount
is used, the mixture is called too "rich" and will If
more than this not burn. There is a minimum
proportion of vapour-to-air below which the vapour
will not burn and there is also a maximum proportion
of vapour-to-air above which the vapour will not
burn. The minimum (lower) and maximum (upper)
limits of the proportion of vapour-to-air in which the
mixture will ignite or explode are known as the lower
and upper explosive limits.
 The temperature at which the material is not
hot enough to keep burning, but still gives off
enough vapors to cause a flame to "flash" across the
surface.
Fire point
The temperature at which the material will
give off ample vapors to keep burning. There is
usually about 5 to 10 degrees difference between the
flashpoint and fire point of most materials. Since the
two are just a few degrees apart, the term
"flashpoint" is used to express the condition of a fuel
vaporizing, whether or not it is vaporizing fast enough
to keep burning.
 Since these two are just a few degrees apart,
the term "flashpoint" is used to express the condition
of a fuel vaporizing, whether or not it is vaporizing
fast enough to keep burning. "Fire point" is the term
normally used only when more technical or detailed
measurement is required.
Ignition Temperature
Ignition temperature is the degree of heat to
ignite flammable necessary vapours. This temperature
can come from an external source (match, spark, and
friction): or if the fuel itself is raised to this
temperature, auto-ignition (self-ignition) will occur.
Oxidation
In nearly all fires, oxidation takes place by
using the oxygen that is present in the atmosphere.
However, in some cases, certain chemical compounds
known as oxidizing agents are involved. Though not
flammable themselves, when they are heated or
when they come in contact with water, they give off
oxygen which in turn, supports the burning of
flammable materials.
Rate of Oxidation
END OF PRESENTATION!
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