Contemporary World

Introduction
The state has traditionally been the subject of most interest to
scholars of global politics because it is viewed as “the
institution that creates warfare and sets economic policies for a
country.”

Furthermore, the state is a political unit that has authority over

its own affairs. In other words, its borders are recognized by
other countries. It is assumed that whoever is in charge of
those borders has the right to determine exactly what is going
to happen in their country.
 Effects of Globalization to Governments

One of the key aspects of state sovereignty is the government. It is a group of

people who have the ultimate authority to act on behalf of a state. Each state has
its own right to self-determination and that other country should not intervene in the
affairs of that state unless there are extraordinary reasons to do so.

There have been several challenges to the government and ultimately, to state
autonomy. We can divide these challenges into four: traditional challenges,
challenges from national or identity movements, global economics, and global
social movements.
1.Traditional Challenges
 Refers to the challenges to the traditional model of citizenship in politics,
social, economic, historic and geographic.
 In this challenge, external intervention can generally be described as invasion
by other countries. For example, when Saddam Hussein was the ruler of Iraq
in 1990, he decided he was going to take over the oil fields of Kuwait. He
invaded Kuwait and took it over. As a result, he was dislodged by an
international coalition led by the United States.
 There are also regional organizations challenging state autonomy. The
United Nations intervened in Sudan because of the several years of civil war.
More recently in Europe, specifically in Greece, it also interfered in the Greek
debt crisis.
2. Challenges from National/Identity Movements
 It is important to know that a nation has cultural identity that people attached
to, while a state is a definite entity due to its specific boundaries. However
different people with different identities can live in different states. For example,
the Kurds reside in several different countries including Iraq, Iran, Turkey. The
Catalans live primarily in Spain but we can also find some of them in France.
 Global movements, such as Al-Qaeda and ISIS, are another example of national
or identity movements. In this case, they are structure around the
fundamentalist version of Islam.
3. Global Economics
 The third major source of challenge comes from global economics.
 Global economy demands the states to conform to the rules of free-market
capitalism. Government austerity comes from developments of organizations
that cooperate across countries, such as WTO and regional agreements, such as
NAFTA, the European Union, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN)
 Neoliberal economic requires a state to cooperate in the global market through the
free flow of capital, the privatization of services, and fiscal austerity or constraint. In
turn, the government’s role is diminished as it relates to the market. Neoliberal
economics is seen as a threat, in general, because a state cannot protect its own
economic interest as a sovereign state.
4. Global Social Movements
 Most of the time, Global Social Movements are not seen as a threat but they definitely
challenge state sovereignty.
a. Social Movements
•  are movements of people that are spontaneous or emerge through enormous
grassroots organization.

•  These social movements are transnational movements which means they occur
across countries and across borders. Therefore, states have less control over them.

•  For example, human rights movements create a public sentiment, value, and
agenda. The idea is that there are certain rights that states cannot neglect or
generally, what we call human rights. If a country decides that they are going to have a
particular policy and if that policy violates the international standard of human rights,
there is a challenge to the ability of the states to fully implement it. An example is the
United States’ position on death penalty. There is an international consensus, with
fewdissenting countries like China, South Africa, and Russia, against the death
b. Environmental Movement
 It is another example of global social movements related to public policy.
 A specific case is the so-called Blockadia or the state where social movements
emerging in local areas fight back as a response to the controlling efforts by the
apparatus of government to protect the interest of neoliberal capitalists.
c. Women’s Right
 Consensus on women’s right is another example in many countries.
 Arguably, the biggest conflict between the West and the fundamentalist Islam is
over the role of women in the society, as well as women’s autonomy.
d. Rights of Personal Autonomy
  Is another example of Global Social Movements that includes homosexuality,
same-sex marriage, and gender equality.
The Relevance of the State amid Globalization

A. The state
 is a distinctive political community with its own set of rules
and practices and that is more or less separate from other
communities.
 It has four elements: people, territory, government, and
sovereignty.
a. People
•  Is a permanent population.
•  This population does not refer to a nomadic people that move from one place to
another in an indefinite time.
•  This permanent presence in one location is strengthened by the second element
of a state, a defined territory.
b. Territory
•  Territory has clear boundaries. It is effectively controlled by the third element,
government.Territory has clear boundaries. It is effectively controlled by the third
element, government.
c. Government
 The government regulates relations among its own people and with other states.
This means that the state is a formally constituted sovereign political structure
encompassing people, territory, and its institutions on the one hand, and maintaining
its autonomy from other states on the other hand.
d. Sovereignty
•  Refers to the supreme power or authority.
•  Sovereignty, in political theory, the ultimate overseer, or
authority, in the decision-making process of the state and in the
maintenance of order.
It is important to differentiate the idea of nation
from state.
a. Nation
• refers to a people rather than any kind of formal territorial
boundaries or institutions.
• It is a collective identity grounded on a notion of shared history and culture.
• If we talk about the Philippines as a nation, we refer to our shared collective
notion of democracy, our history, and our collective identity.
• Nation is a cultural concept.

b. State
• If we talk about the Philippines as a state, we may refer to the
Philippine government, the Philippine territory, and its internal and
external sovereignty.
•  State is a political concept.
Institutions that Govern International Relations
 Peace Treaties and Military Alliances: The UN and NATO
 Non-Government Organizations (NGOs)
 Global Economic Associations: The WTO and NAFTA
 The UN, founded in 1945, was • NATO, founded in 1949, has a more
primarily established to prevent focused role on collective defense
future conflicts by promoting among its member states. It was
international cooperation and created as a response to the perceived
resolving disputes peacefully. One threat of Soviet expansion in Europe
of its key functions is the during the Cold War. The alliance's
maintenance of international peace core principle is Article 5 of the North
and security, for which it has a Atlantic Treaty, which states that an
range of tools including attack on one member is considered an
peacekeeping operations, attack on all members, and thus
sanctions, and diplomatic triggers a collective response. While
mediation. The UN Charter outlines NATO was initially formed to counter
principles such as sovereign Soviet aggression, its mission has
equality of states, non-interference evolved to address broader security
in domestic affairs, and the challenges, including terrorism and
peaceful settlement of disputes. instability in regions beyond its
immediate borders.
While both the UN and NATO are committed to maintaining international peace and
security, they operate in different ways and have distinct mandates:

Scope and Membership:

The UN has universal membership, with 193 member states as of now, providing a
platform for all countries to participate in international diplomacy and decision-making.
NATO, on the other hand, has a more limited membership, consisting of 30 North
American and European countries. Membership in NATO is based on a commitment
to collective defense and shared democratic values.

Decision-Making Process:
The UN General Assembly serves as a forum for all member states to discuss and
vote on issues of international concern, with decisions typically made through
consensus or by a two-thirds majority.
NATO operates on the basis of consensus among its member states, with decisions
made by its North Atlantic Council, which consists of representatives from each
member country.
Peacekeeping and Military Operations:
The UN conducts peacekeeping operations around the world, deploying troops
and personnel to areas of conflict to facilitate ceasefires, support political
processes, and provide humanitarian assistance.
NATO also engages in military operations, but primarily focuses on collective
defense and crisis management within its member states' territories, as well as
missions beyond its borders, such as counterterrorism and training missions.

Legal Authority:
UN peacekeeping missions are authorized by the Security Council, which has
the authority to enforce its decisions through measures such as sanctions or
military action.
NATO military operations are conducted under the authority of the North Atlantic
Council, with actions taken by consensus among member states.
Overall, while the UN and NATO share a common goal of promoting international peace and security, they operate
with different mandates and mechanisms, reflecting the diverse interests and priorities of their member states.
Despite their differences, both organizations play crucial roles in addressing global security challenges and promoting
cooperation among nations.
UNITED NATIONS
Focuses on the reduction of global inequality
• Economic Inequality: This aspect • Social Inequality: Social inequality
of global inequality pertains to encompasses disparities in access
disparities in income and wealth to essential services, such as
among individuals and countries. It healthcare, education, housing, and
is often measured using indicators sanitation. It also includes
such as the Gini coefficient, which inequalities based on gender, race,
quantifies the degree of income or ethnicity, religion, disability, and
wealth distribution within a other social identities. Social
population. Economic inequality can inequality can perpetuate cycles of
arise from factors such as unequal poverty and marginalization, limiting
access to education, employment individuals' opportunities for
opportunities, financial resources, socioeconomic advancement and
and discriminatory policies. participation in society.
• Political Inequality: Political • Environmental Inequality:
inequality refers to disparities in Environmental inequality relates to
political power, representation, and disparities in exposure to
participation within and among environmental hazards, pollution,
nations. It can result from factors and climate change impacts, as
such as authoritarian governance, well as access to natural resources
corruption, lack of democratic and environmental amenities.
institutions, restrictions on civil Marginalized communities,
liberties, and unequal access to particularly those in low-income
decision-making processes. countries and regions, often bear a
Political inequality can undermine disproportionate burden of
democratic principles, exacerbate environmental degradation and
social tensions, and perpetuate climate-related disasters due to
systems of oppression and factors such as land degradation,
exploitation. deforestation, pollution, and
inadequate infrastructure.
The International Court of Justice (ICJ), often referred to as the World Court, is the principal judicial organ of
the United Nations (UN). It was established in 1945, along with the UN itself, and its headquarters are
located in The Hague, Netherlands.
The International Court of Justice plays a vital role in promoting the peaceful settlement of international
disputes and upholding the rule of law in the international community. Its decisions contribute to the
development and clarification of international law and help to maintain stability and security among states.

Nicaragua v. United States (1986): Nicaragua filed a case against the United States in 1984, alleging that the U.S. had
violated international law by supporting military activities against Nicaragua and mining Nicaraguan ports. The ICJ ruled in
favor of Nicaragua in 1986 and found the U.S. liable for violations of Nicaraguan sovereignty.
Iran v. United States (1980): Iran brought a case against the United States in 1980, following the seizure of Iranian assets
by the U.S. during the Iranian Revolution. The ICJ ruled in favor of Iran in 1981 and found that the U.S. had violated
international law by freezing Iranian assets.
Australia v. Japan (2014): Australia filed a case against Japan in 2010, challenging Japan's whale hunting activities in the
Southern Ocean Sanctuary. The ICJ ruled in favor of Australia in 2014 and ordered Japan to cease its whaling program in the
area.
Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro (2007): Bosnia and Herzegovina filed a case against Serbia and
Montenegro in 1993, alleging that Serbia had committed genocide during the Bosnian War (1992-1995). The ICJ ruled in
2007 that Serbia had violated its obligations under the Genocide Convention by failing to prevent genocide but did not find
Serbia directly responsible for genocide.
Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda (2005): The Democratic Republic of the Congo filed a case against Uganda
in 1999, accusing Uganda of violations of international law, including acts of aggression and territorial occupation during the
Second Congo War. The ICJ ruled in 2005 that Uganda had violated Congo's sovereignty but did not find evidence of
aggression amounting to an armed attack.
 NAFTA stands for the North American Free Trade Agreement. It was a trilateral trade
agreement between Canada, Mexico, and the United States that came into effect on
January 1, 1994. NAFTA aimed to eliminate trade barriers and facilitate the flow of
goods and services between the three countries, thereby promoting economic growth,
job creation, and increased competitiveness in the North American region.

Tariff Reduction: NAFTA gradually eliminated tariffs on most goods traded among the three member countries.
This reduction in tariffs made it cheaper for businesses to trade across borders, increasing the volume of trade
between Canada, Mexico, and the United States.
Trade Liberalization: In addition to tariff reductions, NAFTA included provisions to reduce non-tariff barriers to
trade, such as quotas and import licensing requirements. This facilitated greater market access for businesses
and increased competition in various sectors, including manufacturing, agriculture, and services.
Investment Protection: NAFTA included provisions to protect foreign investments among member countries,
providing investors with greater certainty and legal protections. These provisions helped to attract foreign
investment and promote economic development in the region.
Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: NAFTA established mechanisms for resolving disputes between member
countries, including mechanisms for addressing disputes related to trade remedies, investment disputes, and
disputes over the interpretation and application of NAFTA rules.
The United Nations (UN) tried to address the different problems in the
world. Their efforts were guided by the
eight Millenium Development Goals, which they created in the 1990’s.

1. Eradication of ectreme poverty and hunger

2. Achieving universal primary education
3. Promoting gender equaliy and women empowerment
4. Reduing child mortality
5. Improving maternal health
6. Combating disease like HIV/AIDS and malaria
7. Ensuring environmental Sustainability
8. Having a global partnership for development.
Economic Globalization
• Refers to the increasing interdependence of world economies
as a result of the growing scale of cross-border trade and
commodities and services, flow of internation capital, and wide
and rapid spread of technologies,(Shangquan, 2000).

• It reflects the continuing expansion and mutual integration of

market frontiers, and is an irreversable trend for the economic
development in the whole world at the turn of the millenium.
2 Types of Economies
1. Trade Protectionism 2. Trade Liberalization/Free Trade
• means “a policy of systematic • This means that goods and
government intervention in foreign
services move around the world
trade with the objective of
more easily.
encouraging domestic production.
• This encouragement involves giving • Example shoes, mobile phones,
preferential treatment to domestic bananas, to innovation and ideas.
producers and discriminating
against foreign competitors.
• This usually comes in the form of
quotas and tarrifs
Globalization made some countries, especially the developing ones,
to gain more i the global economy at theexpense of other nations.
There are various ways, however, the country can make trade
easier with other countries while lessening the inequalities in the
global world. One of them is “Fair Trade”

Fair Trade
 Is the “concern for the social, economic, and environmenta; well-
being of marginalized small producers”
(International Fair Trade Association).
Sustainable development Environmental Degradation
•  the development of our •  Economic development made
faster through the cycle of
world today by using the
efficiency. Efficiency means finding
earth’s resources and the the quickest possible way of
preservations of such sources producing large amounts of a
for the future. particular product. This process
made buying of goods easier for
the people. Ultimately, there was an
• In other words, development increased efficiency of which this
has to be ensured in and for cycle harms the planet in a number
the future generations. of ways.

• This is what we call environmental

degradation.
Food Security
•  Global food security means delivering sufficient food to the entire world population. It is therefore, a
priority of all
countries, whether developed or less developed.
•  The food security also means the sustainability of society such as population frowth, climate
change, water
scarcity, and agriculture.
•  The closest aspect of human life associated with food security is the environment. The challenges
to food
security can be traced to the protection of the environment.
•  Problems associated with food security:
a. Destruction of natural habitats, particularly through deforestation;
b. Destruction of marine life and ecosystem through industrial fishing;
c. Declination of biodiversity and usable farmland;
d. Declination of the availability of fresh water because of the degradation of soil; and
e. Pollution
• There are different modes and agenda pushed by different organizations to address the issue of
global food security. One of this is through sustainability. The UN has set ending hunger, achieving
food security and improved nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture as the second of its 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for the year 2030
There are different modes and agenda pushed by different organizations to address the
issue of global food security. One of this is through sustainability. The UN has set ending
hunger, achieving food security and improved nutrition, and promoting sustainable
agriculture as the second of its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for the year
2030.

The multiplier effect - this means an increase in one economic activity can lead to an
increase in other economic activities. For instance, investing in local businesses will lead
to more jobs and more income.

Developed Vs. Less Developed Countries

 The root of many arguments against economic globalization is that companies do not
have to follow the same rules they do in developed countries. Some developing countries
have no minimum wage laws. They do not have regulations that provide safe working
conditions or protect the environment. Although nearly every country bans child laor,
those laws are not always enforced
Global Income Inequality
 Globalization and inequality are closely related. We can see how different nations are divided
between the North and the South, developed anmd less developed, and the core periphery. These
differences mainly reflect one key aspects of inequality in the contemporary world - global economic
inequality.

Two Types of Economic Inequality:

1. Wealth Inequality
•  Wealth refers to the net worth of a country. It takes into account all the assets of a nation - may
they be natural, physical, and human - less the liabilities.
•  In other words, wealth is the abundance of recources in a specific country. This means that
wealth in equality speaks about distribution of assets.

2. Income Inequality
•  Income is the new earnings that are constantly being added to the pile of a country’s wealth.
•  Income inequality means that new earnings are being distributed; it values the flow of goods
and services, not a stock of assets
 Theories of Global Stratification
1. Modernization Theory
 This theory frames global stratification as a function of technological and cultural
differences between nations.  It specifically pinpoints two historical events that contributed to
Western Europe developing
at a faster rate than much of the rest of the world.

a. Columbian Exchange
This refers to the spread of goods, technology, education, and diseases between the
Americas and Europe after Christopher Columbus’ so called “discovery of the
Americas”. The exchange work out well. They gained agricultural staples, like potatoes and
tomatoes, which contributed to poppulation frowth and provided new opportunities
for trade, while also strengthening the power of the merchant class.
b. Industrial Revolution
New technologies, like steam power mechanization, allowed countries to replace
human labor with machines and increase productivity. This, at first, only benefited
the wealthy in western countries.  Modernization theory rests on the idea that affluence could be
attaied by anyone. It argues
that the tension between tradition and technological change is the biggest barrier to growth.
Walt Rostow’s Four Stages of Modernization
According to American economist Walt Rostow, modernization in the West
took place, as it always tends to, in four stages:

1. Traditional stage - this refers to societies that are structured around small, local
communities with production typically being done in family settings. These societies have
limited resources and technology, most of their time is spent on laboring to produce food,
which create a strict social hierarchy.
2. Take-off Stage - People begin to move beyond doing what has alwyas been done.
People begin to use their individual talents to produce things beyond the necessities. This
innovation creates a new markets for trade.
3. Drive to Technological Maturity - Technological growth, reductions in absolute poverty
levels, and more diverse job opportunities. Nations in this phase typically begin to push for
social change along with economic change, like implementing basic schooling for everyone
and developing more democratic political systems.
4. High Mass Consumption - It is when your country is ig enough that production becomes
more about wants than needs. Many of these countries put social support systems in place
to ensure that all of their citizens have access to basic necessities.
2. Dependency Theory and Latin American Experience
Dependency thoery was initially developed by Hans Singer and Paul Prebisch in the 1950s.
 The term “core nations” and “peripheral nations” are at heart of dependency theory.
•  Peripheral nations -are countries that are less developed and receive an unequal
distribution of the world’s wealth.
•  Core countries - are more industrialized nations who receive the majority of the world’s
wealth.

 Dependency theorists saw that the developent of peripheral nations is stagnant because
of the exploitative nature of the core nations (Ferraro, 2008) .

Less developed periphery countries are said to primarily serve the interests of the wealthier
countries and end up having little to no resources to put towad their own development.

The theory points out that the economies of periphery countries rely on manual labor and to
theexport of raw materials to core nations. The core countries then process these raw
materials and sell them at a much higher price. Some of these manufactured goods go right
back to the periphery countries from which the raw came from.