Engineering Geology

Unit-V
 Syllabus

• Geology of dam reservoirs, roads,

sites, sites and tunnels (broad out
bridge
lines),
Stability of hills slopes, their
landslides,
causes and precautions against them.
 Geology of Dam Sites

• The Success of a dam is not only related to its own

safety and stability but also to the success of
associated reservoirs. In other words, on
construction, if a dam stands firmly but its
reservoirs leaks profusely then such a dam is to be
treated only as a failure because theif purpose
for which it was constructed was not served.
Geology of Dam Sites
 Geology of Dam Sites

• Therefore, utmost care is needed in planning for the

success of both the dams and the reservoir.
• Careful geological studies bring out the inherent
advantage or disadvantage of a site and
such studies go a long way either in reducing
or in increasing the cost of a dam considerably.
Geology of Dam Sites
 Geology of Dam Sites
• The Important Geological
requirements which should be considered in
the selection of a dam are as follows:
• Narrow River Valleys
• Occurrenc of the bedrock at a
e depth. shallow
• Competent
foundation rocks to offer a
• Proper Geological
stable
Structures
 Geology of Dam Sites
Narrow River Valley
• At the proposed dam site, if the river valley
is narrow, only a small dam is required,
which means the cost of dam construction
will be less. On the other hand, if the valley
is wide, a bigger dam is necessary which
means the construction cost will be very
high.
Narrow River Valley
 Geology of Dam Sites
• Therefore, it is preferable from the economy point
of view, to select such a site along the river valley
which has the least areal cross-section (i.e.. the
narrowest part of the river).
• But such sites should not be blindly
selected without further investigations, because
sometimes they may have severe defects which
may lead to serious leakage from the reservoir
and may affect the safety of the dam.
 Geology of Dam Sites
Bedrock at Shallow Depths
• To ensure its safety and stability a dam has to
necessarily rest on (Physically) very strong and
(Structurally) very stable (i.e. bedrocks). If
such competent bedrocks occur near the surface
or at shallow depths, the foundation cost of the
dam will naturally be less. On the other hand, if
competent bedrocks occur at great depths, the
cost of the foundation will be very high
because it involves extensive work of excavation
of loose overburden and concrete refilling.
Bedrock at Shallow Depths
 Geology of Dam Sites
• The Thickness of sediments or loose overburden along the
river valley depends on the nature and the stage
of development of the river. In other words, strong and
fresh bedrocks may occur at or near the surface,
therefore only small dams may be suitable thee to serve a
limited purpose.
• The general occurrence of material like clay, silt, sand
and gravel along the river bed, naturally makes it
difficult to assess the thickness of loose overburden by
mere surfacial studies. Therefore to know the bedrock
profile, geophysical investigations such as “Electrical
Resistivity studies” or “Seismic refraction Studies” are
carried out carefully. The data recorded in the field
during investigations are interpreted and the required
bedrock profile is visualized.
“Electrical Resistivity Studies”
or
“Seismic Refraction Studies”
 Geology of Dam Sites

Competent Rocks for Safe Foundation:

• If Igneous rock occurs at the selected dam
site, they will offer a safe basis, and weak
sedimentary rocks, particularly shale's, poorly
cemented sandstones and limestone's shall
naturally be undesirable to serve as foundation
rocks.
Geology of Dam Sites
 Geology of Dam Sites
• The suitability or otherwise of a site to serve as
a foundation for major dams depends on factors such as
:
• The existing rock type at the dam site.
• The extent of weathering it has undergone
• The occurrence of intrusions
• The extent of fracturing
• The extent of geological structures, the mode and
number of rock types concerned.
 Geology of Dam Sites
Suitability of Igneous Rocks
• Among the rock types, the occurrence of massive
plutonic and (or) hyperbyssal igneous rocks is the most
desirable at the dam site because they are very strong and
durable due to their dense character. Interlocking
texture, hard silicate mineral composition, occurrence of
negligible porosity and permeability, absence of any
inherent weak planes, resistance of weathering and
their tendency to occur over wide areas. Thus all
plutonic rocks like Granites, Syenites, diorites and
gabbros are very competent and desirable rocks.
• However, volcanic rocks which are vesicular
or amygdaloidal, are not equally desirable, obviously
because these character contributes to porosity,
permeability and hollowness which, in turn, reflect the
strength of the rocks.
 Geology of Dam Sites

• Of Course, it is necessary that such rocks should not

have been affected by any intense weathering
or fracture or dykes or adverse geological
structures like shearing, faulting and jointing.
 Geology of Dam Sites

Suitability of Sedimentary Rocks

• In thiscase of sedimentary rocks, bedding and its
the and extent
compaction
orientation, andthickness
cementation, grain size, leaching
of beds, of of
soluble
nature matter, porosity and permeability, associated
geological structures and composition of constituents (i.e.
Sediments, cementing material, etc.) influence the
strength and durability of different sedimentation rocks.
Suitability of Sedimentary Rocks
 Geology of Dam Sites
• Based on aforementioned details, it may be stated that:
• Shales are not inherently incompetent but they also
form slippery bases. The fore they are most undesirable
at dam sites.
• Among Sandstone, well-cemented siliceous type
are
competent and suitable for the dam construction.
• Laterites
Limestonesandare
conglomerates
competentareif undesirable
they are atmassive,
dam sites
i.e..
• unaffected by the solution phenomenon, Hence are
they undesirable at dam sites.
Geology of Dam Sites

Shales
 Geology of Dam Sites
Laterite

Sandstone

Limestone

Conglomerate
 Geology of Dam Sites
Suitability of Metamorphic Rocks
• Among the metamorphic rocks:
• “Gneisses” are generally competent like granites,
unless they possess a very high degree of foliations
and are richly accompanied by mica-like minerals.
• Quartzites are very hard and highly resistant
to
weathering. They are neither porous nor permeable.
• Marbles, like quartzite, are compact, bear a
granulose structure, are not porous, nor permeable and
reasonably strong too. But by virtue of their chemical
composition and minerals they are unsuitable at dam sites.
• Slates bear a typical slaty cleavage. Hence this rock
is soft and weak and undesirable at dam sites.
Geology of Dam Sites

Metamorphic Rocks
 Geology of Dam Sites

• After learning the suitability of the occurrence

of different varieties of common rocks at dam
sites, it should be remembered that all types of rocks
exhibit within themselves some variations in their
chemical and mineral composition.
• Finally it may be said that most of the
igneous and metamorphic rocks, when fresh and
free from structural defects, have enough strength
to bear the loads involved in dam of all sizes
with surplus safety factor too.
Geology of Dam Sites
 Geology of Dam Sites

Effects of Associated Geological Structures

• For the stability of a dam, the occurrence
of favorable geological structure is a very
important requirement. Under structural
geology we have learnt that those rocks bear
certain inherent or original physical properties,
such characters get modified either
advantageously or disadvantageously
when geological structure occurs in those
rocks.
Geology of Dam Sites
 Geology of Dam Sites

Cases of Undisturbed i.e. Horizontal Strata

• This geological situation is good at the dam
site because the load of the dam acts perpendicular
to the bedding planes, which means that the beds
are in an advantageous position to bear the
loads with full competence.
• Further, the seepage of reservoir water that may
take place beneath the dam is effectively prevented
by the weight of the dam which acts vertically
downwards.
• Thus the possible uplift pressure which is
dangerous to the stability of the dam is effectively
reduced.
 Geology of Dam Sites

• Cases where lie Perpendicular to

Beds the
length of the valleys
• (a)
BedsTiltedwith
Beds100 to 300 inclination in
upstream
the directions
• Such a situation is ideal because the
resultant force acts more or less
perpendicular to the bedding plane which
are dipping in the upstream side.
 Geology of Dam Sites
Beds with Steep Upstream Dip
• Such a situation is not bad but not as advantageous as that
of the previous situations, for obvious reasons, i.e. in
this case, there shall be no uplift on the dam site and no
leakage of water from the reservoir, but due to steep dip
the bedding planes are not perpendicular to the
resultant force, this means the rock will not be as
compatible as in previous case.
 Geology of Dam Sites
Beds with Steep Downstream Dip
• For obvious reasons this has all the
disadvantages
situations of the previous case. Further,
here the resultant force and bedding planes are
nearly parallel, which means that the beds will
be even less competent.
 Geology of Dam Sites

Beds which are Folded

• Folding of beds, which occurs on a relatively
large scale, is generally less dangerous than
faulting. Unless the folds are of a complex nature.
• However, it should be borne in mind that unlike
simply tilted strata, the folded rocks are not
only under strain but also physically fractured
along the crests. Hence grouting & other precautions
may have to be considered, depending on the context,
to improve the stability and competence of rocks at the
site.
Geology of Dam Sites
 Geology of Dam Sites

Beds Which are Faulted

• Occurrence of faulting irrespective of its attitude
(i.e.. Strike and Dip), right at the dam site is most
undesirable. If the faults are active, under no
circumstances, can dam construction be taken up
there. This is not only because of the fear of possible
relative displacement of the site itself but also due to the
possible occurrence
• Further, if of earthquakes.
fault zone is crushed or intensely
fractured,
the it becomes physically incompetent
to withstand the forces of the dam.
• Thus locations of the dam sites on a fault zone
is
undesirable for different reasons.
 Geology of Dam Sites

Beds Which are Faulted

 Geology of Dam Sites
Beds Which Have Joints
• Among the different geological structures, joints
are the most common and are found to occur
in all kinds of rocks, almost everywhere.
• But Since the rocks with these joints are not under
any strain, and also because of the scope to overcome
their effects easily by simple treatment, they
are not considered as serious defects. Grouting is
generally capable of overcoming the adverse
effects of joints because it fill the gaps of
joints, increase compactness and competency of
the rocks & reduce porosity & permeability.
Beds Which Have Joints
 Reservoir
• From the Geological point of view, a reservoir can
be claimed to be successful if it is watertight (i.e.. if
it does not suffer from any serious leakage of
water) and if it has a long life due to very slow rate
of silting in the reservoir basin. The reservoir, when
filled, gives chances for reactivation of underlying
inactive faults. This in turn, gives scope for the
occurrence of seismicity and landslides in that
region.
Reservoir
 Reservoir
Capacity of the Reservoir
Effect of Evaporation
• The natural process of evaporation reduces
the
quantity of water in the reservoir. Through
unwanted, this process is unavoidable.
reservoirs are open and Since
extended over larger
areas. The magnitude of evaporation will be
extensive. Of course, such loss shall be less if the
topography is such that a reservoir covers a small
area but has a great depth to provide adequate
capacity.
Effect of Evaporation
 Reservoir

Water- Tightness and Influencing factors

• When a river flows over such loose soil or
fractured ground, it is natural that some water of
the river percolates (or leaks) underground. Before
the construction of the dam, this leakage shall be less
and limited only to the extent over which the
river flow occurs. But when the dam is
constructed, the impounding water accumulates in
large quantity in a reservoir which covers a very
large area.
 Reservoir
• Further, due to the considerable height of the water
in the reservoir, significant hydrostatic
pressure develops which will make the
leakage more effective on the sides and the floor
of the reservoir. Thus, the extent of leakage may
become alarmingly great.
 Reservoir
Influence of Rock Types
• Water-tightness of a reservoir basin is
also very much influenced by the kind of
rocks that occur at the reservoir site. If the
rock are porous and permeable, they
will cause the leakage of water and
hence such rock are undesirable at the
reservoir site.
 Reservoir
Igneous Rocks:
• Intrusive igneous rocks like granite, by virtue of
their composition, texture and mode
of formation are neither porous nor
permeable. Hence their occurs at the reservoir
site will not cause leakage of water unless
they have other defects like joints, faults, or
shear zones.
• But the extrusive (i.e.. Volcanic) igneous
rocks like basalt are not desirable because
they are often vesicular.
 Reservoir
• By virtue of their wide areal extent and frequency of
occurrence, sedimentary rocks are the more
important in this regard than igneous rocks. Among
the different sedimentary rocks shale's are the
most abundant followed by sandstone & limestone.
• Shales the extremely fine grained sedimentary
rocks. Are highly porous but not permeable. For
this reason, the occurrence of shale's at the
reservoir site shall not cause any leakage. Of
course, at the dam site, its occurrence is
considered undesirable because of its
incompetency and slippery character.
Reservoir
 Reservoir
Sedimentary Rocks
• The next common sedimentary rock i.e.. sandstone
is an aquifer and hence it has a tendency to
cause leakage. However, careful examination is
needed to know whether it causes severe
leakage or not, if present at the reservoir site.
This is so because the porosity and permeability
of different sandstone differ depending on a
degree of cementation and composition of the
cementing materials of sandstones.
Sedimentary Rocks
 Reservoir
• The Occurrence of limestone, the third
most common rock of the sedimentary
group at the reservoir site is, in general,
undesirable. Of course, it may not only
have negligible porosity but also possess
reasonable hardness and durability. Thus
through the compact of massive limestone
superficially seem to be water proof,
they may be internally cavernous and
cause profuse leakage.
Limestone
 Reservoir
Metamorphic Rocks
• Gneisses, which are one of most common
metamorphic
the rocks, behave like granite, i.e..
they are neither porous nor permeable. The schists,
on the other hand, by virtue of their excellent
foliation and soft and cleavage-bearing mineral
content and a source of weakness and leakage
problems. The quartzite which are compact, by
virtue of their quartz content and granulose
structure, are neither porous nor permeable.
Metamorphic Rocks
 Metamorphic Rocks

• Therefore, their occurrence at reservoir sites

contribute to water-tightness. Marbles, through
compact, by virtue of their calcium carbonate
composition and calcite content are not reliable in
terms of their water tightness. Slates due to their
characteristics slaty due to their
characteristic slaty cleavage may tend to cause
leakage but their very fine grained nature helps
in checking such leakage considerably.
Metamorphic Rocks
 Tunnels
• Tunnels are underground passages or routes
(or passages through hills or mountains) used for
different purposes. They are made by excavation
of rocks below the surface or through the hills or
mountains.
• Like dams, bridges and reservoirs, tunnels are
also very important civil engineering projects,
but with some differences.
• Unlike other civil engineering constructions
which lie on the surface, generally, tunnels lie
underground (i.e.. within the rocks). For this
reason, the needs for their safety and stability is much
more important.
Tunnels
 Tunnels
Effects Of Tunneling On The Ground
• The tunneling process the physical
conditions
deterioratesof the ground. This happens because due
to heavy and repeated blasting excavation, the rocks
gets shattered to great extent and
develop numerous cracks and fractures. This
reduces the cohesiveness and compactness of
rocks. In other words, rocks becomes loose
and more fractured and porous. This naturally
adversely affects the competence of the rocks
concerned.
Tunnels
 Tunnels
Geological Considerations for successful Tunneling
• As already stated, the safety success and
economy of tunneling depend on the various
geological conditions prevailing at the site.
As usual, the important geological factors which
interfere with this civil engineering project (i.e.
tunneling) are also lithological, structural
and ground water conditions.
Tunnels
 Tunnels
Importance of Rock Types
• Since tunnels through underground rock
masses, obviously the nature of rock types which are
encountered along the tunnel alignment is very
important for the safety and stability of the tunnel.
• In brief, the competent rocks (i.e. those which are strong,
hard and massive) will lead to safe but slow
tunneling and incompetent rocks (which are loose
or soft or fractured), through amenable for easy
tunneling, will be unstable and hence require lining. Of
Course, if tunnel extends for considerably long
distances, the kind or rocks en route may vary
from place to place, i.e. Competent at some places
and incompetent at some other places.
Tunnels
 Tunnels
Suitability of Igneous Rocks at the Tunnel Site
• Massive igneous rocks, I.e. the plutonic and hyperbyssal
varieties, are very competent but difficult to work. They
do not need any lining or any special maintenance. This is
so because they are very strong, tough, hard, rigid, durable,
impervious and tunneling, do not succumb to collapse,
floor bumps, side bulges or to any other deformation.
• The volcanic rocks, too in spite of their vesicular or
amygdaloidal character are competent and suitable
for tunneling. Further, by virtue of frequently
present vesicular or amygdaloidal structure, they
are more easily workable than intrusive rocks.
Suitability of Igneous Rocks at the
Tunnel Site
 Tunnels
Sedimentary Rocks at the tunnel Site
• In general, sedimentary rocks are less competent
than
igneous rocks. Among the different sedimentary rocks.
• Thick bedded, well-cemented and siliceous or
ferruginous sandstones are more competent and
better suited for tunneling. They will be strong, easily
workable and, moreover, do not require any lining. Thus
they possess all the desirable qualities for tunneling,
provided they are not affected adversely by any
geological structures and ground water conditions.
• Shales, by virtue of their inherent weakness and
lamination, may get badly shattered during blasting. But
being soft, they can be easily excavated and hence tunneling
progresses faster through shale formations. Proper lining is
necessary for tunnels built in Shales.
Sedimentary Rocks at the Tunnel
Site
 Tunnels
• Among limestones, dolomitic limestone are harder
and more durable. They are better than
other varieties. On the other hand, calcareous
limestones or porous limestones are naturally
weaker and softer.
• In a majority of the cases, sedimentary rocks. Being
relatively softer, facilitate fast progress of
work, but by virtue of their weakness requires
suitable lining.
Tunnels
 Tunnels
Metamorphic Rocks at the Tunnel Site
• Among different metamorphic rocks, gneisses
are nearly similar to granites in terms of
their competence, durability and workability.
Hence, they are capable of withstanding the
tunneling process without requiring any lining. The
gneissose structure may be advantageous in the
excavation process. Schists, phyllites, etc, which
are highly foliated and generally soft, are easily
workable but necessarily require good lining.
• Quartzite are very hard and hence very difficult to
work they are more brittle too. They are
competent and need no lining.
Metamorphic Rocks at the Tunnel
Site
 Tunnels
Importance of Geological Structures
• Effects of Joints at the Tunnel Site
• Most of the rocks in nature possess
irregular cracks and regular joints, which
are plane of complete separation in rock
masses, and clearly represent weakness in
them. There will be more qualitively
and quantitavely nearer the surface but
generally disappear with depth.
 Tunnels
• Closely spaced joints in all kind of rocks are
harmful. However, in general, in igneous rocks,
which are exceptionally strong, the presence may not
harm their self- supporting character.
• In Sedimentary rocks, the occurrence of joints
is undesirable because these rocks, which are originally
weak and incompetent, become still more weak. As in the
case of other rocks, the presence of joints in these rocks also
depends on the past tectonic history of the concerned region.
Effects of Joints at the Tunnel
Site
 Tunnel
s
• In Metamorphic rocks also, joints are not
characteristic, but are frequently present. Granite gneisses
and quartzites, being very competent, can remain
suitable for tunneling even if some joints occur in them.
But schists and slates with joints will become very
incompetent and necessarily requires lining.
• Marbles, which possess joints, are unsuitable for
tunneling because, in them, joints are root causes for the
occurrence of sink holes, solution cavities and channels.
• Further, as common with other types of rocks, the
sheet
joints occur in this group of rocks too.
Tunnels
Metamorphic rocks
 Tunnels
Fault At The Tunnel Site
• As in other civil engineering projects, in tunnels
too, faults are harmful and undesirable because
they create a variety of problems.
• The active fault are places where there is scope
for further recurrence of faulting, which
will be accompanied by the physical displacement
of litho units. Hence, such faults lead to
dislocation and discontinuity in the tunnel
alignment. Therefore, irrespective of the relation of
the attitude of the fault with the tunnel courses, the
occurrence of any active faults in tunnels is very
undesirable.
Fault At The Tunnel Site
 Fault At The Tunnel Site

• The fault zones even if inactive, are places of

intense fracturing, which means that they are zones
of great physical weakness.
• Such a remedial measures of lining (with concrete)
also becomes necessary fault zones, being highly
porous, permeable and decomposed, are the
potential zones to create ground water problems.
Fault At The Tunnel Site
 Tunnels
Folds at the Tunnel Site
• Folds represent the deformation of rocks under
the influence of tectonic forces. Hence the folded rocks
will be under considerable strain. When
excavations for tunnels are made in folded rocks,
such rocks get the opportunity to release this strain (i.e.
stored energy). Such a release may occur in the form
of rock bursts or rock falls or bulging of the sides
or the floor or the roof. Thus complications of such
a kind are likely to occur when tunneling is made in
folded regions.
• In folded regions, the tunnel alignment may be parallel
or perpendicular or oblique to the axis of folds.
Further the tunnel may run along the crests or troughs or
limbs.
Folds at the Tunnel Site
 Tunnels
• Effects of Undisturbed or Tilted Strata at The Tunnel
Site
Horizontal Beds
• In cases of horizontal or gently inclined
beds, conditions will be favorable for tunneling.
But it is desirable that the bed concerned be thick
so that the tunnel passes through the same
formation. This is preferable because thicker
formation are more competent and hence tunnels
through them will be safe and stable.
 Tunnels
Inclined Beds
• The forgoing advantage also occur when the
tunnels are made parallel to the strike of massive,
thick, inclined beds or when inclined tunnels
are made following the directions of the slope.
 Tunnels
• i.e. Parallel to the dip
• In the latter case, an inclined tunnel driven
along the dip of beds must run through the
same bed or beds all along its course. The stability
of the tunnel in all these cases depends on the nature
of the beds which forms the roof. It is relevant to
say in this context that the dip and strike
galleries in coal mines are driven in this way, i.e.
along the true dip and strike, respectively, of the
coal seams. These tunnels, therefore, always run
along the coal seams and have nearly similar
conditions all along their length.
 Tunnels
• However, when the tunnel is horizontal and
runs parallel to the dip direction, then
numerous beds will appear along its course.
This is undesirable because in such a case the
tunneling conditions differ from place to place and
this may lead to problems like stability and over
break.
Tunnels
 Landslides
• Land slide refers to the downward sliding of huge
quantities of land masses. Generally, such slides
occurs along steeper slopes of hills or mountains.
It must be sudden or slow in the occurrence. Also,
in magnitude, it may be major or minor. Often,
loose unconsolidated surfacial material
and
sliding. But sometimes, undergoes
consolidated rocks may also be huge
involved.blocks of
Landslides
 Landslides
• Landslides are generally, of no concern and
can just be ignored if they occur in uninhabited
places and places of no human interest. But if
they occur in places of importance such as
highways, railway lines, valleys, reservoirs,
inhabited areas and agricultural lands,
obviously, such instances lead to blocking of
traffic, collapse of buildings, harm to fertile
lands and so apart from heavy loss of life and
property.
Landslides
 Landslides

Causes of Landslides
• Landslides occur due to various causes, Broadly they
may be grouped into two types,
• i.e. inherent or internal cause and immediate causes.
Of these, the internal cause are responsible to the
extent of creating favorable or suitable conditions for
landslide occurrence. The other sets of causes,
• i.e. immediate cause, play the role of overcoming
this frictional resistance or inertia by providing
necessary energy in the form of sudden jerk, for
the actual occurrence of landslide.
Causes of Landslides
 Landslides

Internal Causes
• The causes which are inherent in the land mass
concerned are again of various types such
as influences of slope, associated water,
constituent lithology, associated geological
structures, human factors, etc.
Landslides
 Landslides
Effects of Slope
• This is very important factor which
provides favorable conditions for landslides
occurrence. It is both directly and indirectly
responsible for land slips. Steeper slopes are
prone to land slips of loose overburdens due
to great gravity influence, whereas gentle
slopes are not prone to such land slips
because, in such cases, loose overburden
encounters greater frictional resistance;
hence any possible slip is stalled.
Landslides
 Landslides
• It is common observation that any loose material,
if piled up, shall have a natural slope of about 35 0 C
called the angle of repose.
• However, it should be remembered that
hard consolidated and fresh rocks remain
stable even against any slope, unless they are
adversely affected by other lithological and
structural factors.
 Landslides
Effects of Water
• This is the most important factor which is mainly
responsible for landslide occurrence. This is so
because it adversely affects the stability of the loose
ground in different ways.
• The presence of water greatly reduces
the intergranular cohesion of the particles of
loose ground. This weakens the ground
inherently and therefore, makes it prone to
landslide occurrences
Landslides
 Landslides
• On hill slopes, water on percolation through the
overlying soil zone may flow down as a film or thin
sheet of water above the underlying hard rocks.
• Along hill slopes, rain water, while percolates
down, carries with it fine clay and silty material
which may form a thin band at the interface of
loose overlying material and underlying hard work.
• Water, being the most powerful solvent, not
only causes decomposition of minerals but also
leaches out the soluble matter of rocks. This
reduces the compaction or cohesion of the rock bodies
and make it a weak mass.
Landslides
 Landslides
Effects of Lithology
• The nature of rock types also influences
landslide. For ex.
• Rocks which are highly fractured, porous
and
permeable are prone to landslide occurrence
• Rocks which are highly fractured, porous
and permeable are prone to landslide
occurrence because they give scope for the water
to play an effective role.
Landslides
 Landslides
• Rocks are rich in certain constituents like
which
clay,
calcareous calcite, material
cementing gypsum, are
rockmoresalt and
prone
mica,
to landslide occurrence because they are easily
leached out, causing porosity and permeability,
landslide occurrence because they are easily
leached porosity
causing out, and permeability.
• Thinner Strata are more to sliding
susceptible
than thicker strata.
Landslides
 Landslides

Effects of Geological Structures

• The geological Structures increase the
which chances of landslide are inclined
occurrence
bedding planes, joints, faults or shear zones.
All these are plane of weakness. When their
dip coincides with that of the surface slope they
create conditions of instability.
Landslides
 Landslides
Immediate Causes
• The different causes listed earlier simply
create favorable conditions for the
occurrence of landslides, but they themselves
do not bring about the actual occurrence of
landslides. Otherwise, landslides could have
occurred anywhere and at any time just if the case
were present. But the fact that the landslide occur
suddenly at certain times only, indicate that
these causes only prepare the ground but
because of factors such as frictional resistance
the overlying mass will remain in the same place in a
critical condition.
Landslides
 Landslides
• Hence such an impulse, which is a sudden jolt or
jerk or vibration of the ground, acts as
the immediate cause for the occurrence of
landslides. This sudden jolting phenomenon of the
ground may, in turn, be due to the different
natural and artificial reasons like avalanche,
volcanic irruptions, falls of meteorite, occurrence
of earthquake, blasting of explosives in
quarrying, tunneling, road cutting or mining.
Landslides
 Landslides

Effects of Landslides
• From the Civil Engineering Point of view, if landslide
occurs at vulnerable places, they may cause:
• (i) Disruption of transported or blocking of
communications by damaging and railways
telegraph poles; roads and
• (ii) Obstruction to the river flow in valleys, leading to
their overflow and floods;
• (iii) Damage to sewer and other pipelines
• (iv) Burial or destruction of buildings and
other
construction
 Landslides

Preventive Measures for Landslides

• To Prevent the occurrence of landslides, it would be
logical to take such steps which would counter the
effects of those responsible for
landslide occurrence. The main factors which
contribute to landslide occurrence are slope,
water content, structural defects, unconsolidated
or loose depth of overburden.
Landslides
 Landslides

Preventive Measures for Landslides

• To prevent the occurrence of landslides, it
would be logical to take such steps which would
counter the effects of those factors
responsible for landslide occurrence. The
main factors which contribute to landslide
occurrence are slope, water content, structural
defects, unconsolidated or loose character of the
overburden, lithology and human interferences.
Landslides
Landslides
 Retaining walls

To Counter the effect of slope

• Retaining walls may be constructed against the
slopes, so that the material which rolls down is
not only prevented from further fall but
also reduces the slope
To Counter the effects of water
• A proper drainage system is the suitable
measure. This involves the quick removal
of percolated moisture by means of
surface drainage and subsurface drainage.
Retaining Wall
 Landslides

To Counter the Structural Defects

• The different structural defects such as
weak planes and zones may be either covered or
grouted suitably so that they are effectively
sealed off. These measures not only prevent the
avenues for percolation of water but also
increase the compaction or cohesion of the
material concerned.
Grouting to Prevent
Landslides
 Landslides
• Not to resort to reduce the stability of existing slopes
• This is done by not undertaking any undercutting on
the surface slope and by not undertaking
any construction at the top of the hills.
• To Counter the loose nature of the overburden
• Growing vegetation, plants and shrubs onloose
ground helps in keeping the loose soil to-geather.
• Avoiding heavy traffic and blasting operations
near the vulnerable places naturally helps in
preventing the occurrence of landslides.
Growing Vegetation
 References

• Textbook of Engineering Geology :N.Chenna

Kesavullu
Internet Websites
• Wikipedia
• http://geology.com/
Thanks..
Pebbles of Wisdom.....