WATER FLOW IN CHANNELS AND PIPES

The conveyance of water in open

channels and in pipes is important in
many branches of agricultural
development such as irrigation,
drainage, soil and water conservation
and domestic water supplies.
Pressure Distribution in Pipelines
By application of Bernoulli’s law, the total head
available at any point in a pipeline is equal to the
pressure head plus elevation head plus velocity
head.
The difference in total head between any two
points 1 and 2 on a pipeline under steady state flow
conditions is equal to the friction headloss
between the two points.
Where HT2 = Total
head, m
P/ψ= Pressure head,
m
Ψ = specific weight of
the fluid, kN/m3
Z = elevation head, m
hf = friction headloss,
m
The specific weight of the fluid is given by

Where Sg = Specific gravity of the fluid,

dimensionless
Ψw = Specific weight of water, kN/m3
= 9.81 kN/ m3

The units required for pressure in Equation 1 are kPa

(=kN/m2) to enable the pressure head to be in meters.
Pressure distribution along a pipeline
Figure 1 is a schematic of the
distribution of different forms of
energy given as head in a pipeline.
Pressure distribution along a pipeline
The static head line refers to the
distribution of head if there is no
flow in the system.
The energy grade line describes
the variation of total head along
the pipeline, including velocity
head, when flow occurs.
The hydraulic grade line is defined by
the energy grade line minus the
velocity head.
It indicates the height to which water
would rise in a piezometer inserted at
the position in the pipeline.
The hydraulic grade line defines
the working pressure available at
any point along the pipeline.
The pressure distribution in a
pipeline is determined by the
relative positions of water sources
along the line and friction headloss.
Hazen-Williams Friction Headloss Equation

One of the most

common and
convenient methods
Where
of computing friction
k1 = Conversion constant
headloss applicable to
pumping water
L = Length of pipe, m
through irrigation Q = Volumetric flow rate, L/s
systems is the Hazen- C = Hazen-Williams co-
Williams equation, efficient
given as: D = Pipe diameter, mm.
QUESTION 1

A pipeline with 200mm inside diameter and 340m in

length made of new PVC (C=150) is laid along a
horizontal grade. The required flow rate in the
pipeline at steady state is 40L/s and the total head
available at the inlet is 330kPa. Compute the working
pressure head at the discharge 340m from the inlet by
application of the H-W friction headloss equation.
Solution

From tables, L in m, Q in L/s and D in mm,

K1 = 1.22 x 1010
Also for a new PVC, C = 150
Substituting, hf = 2.232m

To convert to kPa,
hf1 = hf Ψ = 2.232m (9.81kN/m3)
hf1 = 21.897kN/m2 = 21.897kPa
HT-340 = 330-22 kPa
= 308kPa
Darcy-Weisbach Friction Headloss
Equation

When the fluid to be pumped is other than water or

the specific weight is substantially different from water
due to additions of chemicals to the flow or
temperature effects, an equation which accounts for
differences in viscosity must be applied to calculate the
friction headloss.
 A common equation applied is the D-W which is
given in its most basic form as:
 Revising this equation to
a form conveniently
Where f = D-W friction applicable to pipe flow:
factor, dimensionless.
 The units from the
friction headloss are that
of the velocity head if L Where k2 = conversion
and D have the same constant
units.
Reynold’s No. , RN
The friction factor is a function of the flow
regime
– that is whether the flow is laminar,
turbulent or in transition between the
two, and the roughness of the pipe material.
The flow regime is designated as a function
of the dimensionless Reynold’s No. , RN,
which is defined by:
 For RN ≤ 2000,
flow is laminar
Where
V = Flow velocity, m/s
and the D_W
D = Pipe diameter, mm friction factor is
ν = kinematic viscosity given by:
of the fluid, m2/s 
= 1.0 x 10-6 m2/s (at
20oC)
In the range 2000 < RN < 4000 the flow is in the
critical state.
In typical engineering applications, flow tends to be
either laminar or fully turbulent so the critical range is
not of concern.
For RN > 4000, flow is said to be turbulent. However,
there are two zones of turbulence as indicated in the
Moody diagram for the D-W f versus RN .
OTHER LOSSES
Wherever the flow of water in a pipe is interrupted or
altered, such as by going round a sharp bend or by
going from one pipe size to another, there is a loss of
pressure.
Any such disturbances will cause turbulence in the
flow, and this uses up energy.
This friction loss is proportional to the square of the
velocity of velocity flow and while it can be ignored at
low velocities such as those in drainage pipes.
It can be significant in a high pressure irrigation
schemes or water supply systems especially if large
numbers of fittings are used.
The effect can be expressed directly in terms of the
pressure loss
But it is more convenient to express it as the length of
a straight pipe which would have the same friction
loss.
An approximation often used in irrigation schemes is
to add 10% to the friction loss of the pipes to allow for
all the miscellaneous minor losses.
QUESTION 2
A pipeline with 200mm inside diameter and 340m in
length made of new PVC (C=150) is laid along a
horizontal grade. The required flow rate in the
pipeline at steady state is 40L/s and the total head
available at the inlet is 330kPa. Compute the working
pressure head at the discharge 340m from the inlet by
application of the D-W friction headloss equation.
[Ans: hf = 1.594m; hf1 = 15.64kPa; HT-340 = 314kPa].
The Continuity Equation

The quantity (Q) of water flowing in a system is given by:

Q = AV
Where Q is the flow in m3/s, A is the cross-sectional area in
m2, and V is the average velocity of flow in m/s.
In steady flow, that is, when the discharge Q, is constant, if
there is a change in the cross-sectional area of the channel,
there must be a correspondence change in velocity. If the
stream channel narrows, the velocity increases so that
Q =A1V1 = A2V2 =A3V3

The equation is called the equation of continuity of flow.

Velocity of flow in open channels
The velocity of water flowing in an open channel is affected
by the following factors:
1. Gradient or slope. Velocity increases when the gradient
is steeper.
2. Roughness. The contact between the water and the
channel exercises a frictional resistance which depends
on the smoothness or roughness of the channel.
A concrete lined canal has less resistance than one whose
sides are choked with vegetation.
It may be desirable to design a smooth channel when it is
required to pass as much water as possible or to increase the
roughness when it is designed to slow the water down to non
scouring velocity.
3. Shape.
 The channel can have the same cross-sectional area,
gradient, and roughness, but still have different
velocities according to their shape.
 The reason is that water close to the sides and
bottom of the channel is slowed by the friction
effect.
 So a channel whose shape provides least area of contact with
the water will have the least frictional resistance and so a
greater velocity.
 The parameter used to measure this effect of shape is called the
hydraulic radius of the channel.
The figures below show how channels can have the same cross sectional area
but different hydraulic radius.

If all other factors are

constant, then the lower
2m the value of R, the lower
6m will be the velocity. Earth
channels are usually
given a cross section
which is trapezoidal.
1m

12m
All these variables which affect velocity of flow
have been brought together in a very useful
empirical equation called the Manning formula:

Hydraulic Radius is the characteristic dimension

of open channels.
It is defined as the ratio of the net cross sectional
area of a flow stream to the wetted perimeter of
the section i.e.
 The slope, S, of a channel
can be stated in several
ways. It is ideally defined as
the ratio of the vertical
Where A = Area, drop h to the horizontal
distance over which the
and WP = Wetted drop occurs.
Perimeter. The  h
e
unit of R is the
meter.
In summary:
A slope of 0.001 could be reported as:
The channel falls 1m per 1000m of channel (1/1000)
The slope is 0.1 percent

The term n is a resistance factor called Manning’s n

(Also called roughness co-efficient). The value of
n depends on the condition of the channel surface.
Manning’s n expresses the bed roughness.
 Manning’s n
Concrete channel 0.012 – 0.017
Unlined canal 0.018 – 0.025
Natural river 0.04 – 0.07
Manning’s n is affected by:
Vegetation growth in the channel
Channel irregularities i.e. alignment, silting and scouring
Obstructions to the flow eg bridge piers or flood debris
Shape and size of channel.
 Therefore

d
From Manning , the
b volumetric flow rate, Q,
For a rectangular is:
section, the economic
depth of flow is given by:

For economic depth of flow and for a given A,
Q is maximum and P is minimum:
QUESTIONS
1. Determine the discharge for a 200mm
inside diameter drainage pipe running half
full if it is laid on a slope which drops 1m
over a distance of 1000m. Assume n=0.013.
2. Compute the discharge for uniform flow in
a rectangular channel made of unfinished
concrete (n=0.017) which has a bed slope of
0.0101 m/m, width of 1.80, and depth of flow
equal to 0.541m.
Answers

1. Cross-sectional area

= 15708mm2 = 0.0157m2

Then

= 0.05m
2.

Applying Manning’s formula:

Substituting:

•
• m3/s
Non-erodible channels

Channels which are constructed or lined with concrete

or other durable material or excavated out of bedrock
are considered non-erodible.
Dimensions for such channels are determined using
uniform flow formulas and considering hydraulic
efficiency, empirical relations which have proven
effective, practicability of construction, and
economic considerations.
Minimum Permissible Velocity

This is the velocity which will

maintain sediment in suspension in
the channel and not allow deposition
of silt on the channel bed. It is also
the velocity which will not induce the
growth of aquatic plants and moss in
the channel. About 0.6 – 0.9 m/s.
Best Hydraulic Section

The channel section which has the least wetted

perimeter for a given cross-sectional flow area will be
the most efficient in transporting water from the
hydraulic point of view.
For any given cross-sectional shape, the most efficient
water transporting geometry is called the best
hydraulic section.
The semi-circle is the most hydraulically efficient of all
the channel shapes.
Trapezoidal sections tend to be used because of ease of
construction.
Best Hydraulic Sections

The principle of basing the design

on the best hydraulic section
applies only to non-erodible
channels.
Freeboard
Freeboard is the vertical distance from the top of the
water surface to the top of the lined channel section at
design flow conditions.
It is a safety factor:
1. For temporary flows greater than the design
discharge
2. For preventing waves or fluctuations in the water
surface from overflowing the channel sides and
weakening channel supports.
Erodible channels
Channels constructed in non-cohesive soils or lined
with grass are considered erodible.
Erodible channels are designed by application of
maximum permissible velocity criterion.
The MPV is that velocity which can be maintained in
open channel flow without eroding the channel cross
sectional area or otherwise damaging the channel flow
characteristics.
MPV for various soils is usually selected along with
their respective Manning’s n.