Computer Networks

Data Communications and Networking, 5th Edition

By
Behrouz A. Forouzan
 Overview
1. Data Communication
2. Components
3. Data Representation
4. Data Flow
 1. Data Communication
• It is the exchange of data between two devices via
a
transmission medium.
• Communication system is a combination of hardware
and
software.
 Data Communication cont..
• Effectiveness of data communication system is depends on four
fundamental characteristics:

1. Delivery
2. Accuracy
3. Timeliness
4. Jitter
 Data Communication cont..
1. Delivery
– System must deliver data to the correct destination.
– Data must be received only by the intended device or user.
2. Accuracy
– System must deliver the data accurately.
– Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are unusable.
 Data Communication cont..
3. Timeliness
– System must deliver data in a timely manner.
– Data delivered late are useless.
– Ex: Real-time transmission
• Video and audio – Deliver it in the same order that they
are produced, and without significant delay.
 Data Communication cont..
4. Jitter
– It refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
– It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video
packets.
– Caused by network congestion and packet loss.
2. Components of Data
Communication
2. Components of Data Communication
• A data communication system is made up of five components.
1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission medium
5. Protocol
2. Components of Data Communication
1. Message
– Information (data) to be communicated.
– Ex: text, numbers, pictures, audio and video.
2. Sender
– Device that sends the data message.
– Ex: computer, workstation, telephone handset, video
camera and so on.
3. Receiver
– Device that receives the message.
– Ex: computer, workstation, telephone handset, television
and so on.
2. Components of Data Communication
4. Transmission medium
– Physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver.
– Ex: twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable and
radio waves.
5. Protocol
– It is a set of rules that govern data communications.
– It represents an agreement between the communicating
devices.
– Ex: A person speaking French cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Japanese.
3. Data Representation
 3. Data Representation
• Information comes in different forms such as text, numbers,
images, audio and video.

Text

Numbers

Images

Audio

Video
 3. Data Representation cont..
1. Text
– Represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s).
– Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text
symbols.
– Each set is called a code.
– Process of representing symbols is called coding.
– Unicode
• Common coding system.
• It uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character in any
language.
– American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII)
• Developed some decades ago in the United States.
• Constitutes the first 127 characters in Unicode.
• Also referred to as Basic Latin
 3. Data Representation cont..
2. Numbers
– Represented by bit patterns.
– It is directly converted to a binary number.
 3. Data Representation cont..
3. Images
– Represented by bit patterns.
– Composed of a matrix of pixels.
– Each pixel is a small dot.
– Size of the pixel is depend on
resolution.
– Better representation (resolution):
more memory is needed.
– Ex: Image can be divided into
1000
pixels or 10,000 pixels.
– Each pixel is assigned a bit
pattern.
 3. Data Representation cont..
3. Images
– Size and value of the pattern depend on the image.
– 1-bit pattern for image made of only black and white dots.
• Ex: Chessboard
– 2-bit pattern for image is not made of pure white and pure
black pixels.
• Ex: 4 levels of gray scale
– A black pixel can be represented by 00
– A dark gray pixel by 01
– A light gray pixel by 10
– A white pixel by 11.
 3. Data Representation cont..
3. Images
– Several methods to represent color images.
• RGB method
– Each color is made of a combination of three
primary colors: red, green, and blue.
• YCM method
– Each color is made of a combination of three other
primary colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta.
 3. Data Representation cont..
4. Audio
– Refers to recording or broadcasting of sound or music.
– It is continuous, not discrete.
5. Video
– Refers to recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie.
– It can either be
• Produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera),
– or it can be a
• Combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged
to convey the idea of motion.
4. Data Flow or Transmission
Mode
 4. Data Flow or Transmission Mode
• Defines the direction of signal flow between two
connected
devices.
• There are three modes of transmission, namely:
1. Simplex
2. Half-duplex
3. Full-duplex
 4.1 Simplex Mode
• Communication is unidirectional.
– Communication between sender and receiver occurs in only
one direction.
• Only sender can send the data and receiver can receive the
data.
• Receiver cannot reply to the sender.
• Use the entire capacity of the channel to send data.
 4.1 Simplex Mode cont..
• Ex: One-lane road
• Ex: Keyboards and Monitors
– Only Keyboard can send input to monitor
– Monitor can only receive the input and display it on the
screen.
– Monitor cannot reply to the keyboard.
 4.2 Half-Duplex Mode
• Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time.
• When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa.
• Entire capacity of a channel is taken over by the transmitting
device.
 4.2 Half-Duplex Mode cont..
• Ex: Walkie-talkies
– Speakers at both ends can speak, but they have to speak
one by one.
– They cannot speak simultaneously.
 4.3 Full-Duplex Mode
• Also called duplex.
• Both stations can transmit and receive at same time.
• Signals going in either direction sharing the capacity of the
link.
• Sharing can occur in two ways:
– Link has two physically separate transmission paths

• One for sending and other for receiving.

– Capacity of the channel is divided between signals

travelling in both directions.

 4.3 Full-Duplex Mode cont..
• Ex: Two-way road
– Traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
• Ex: Telephone network
– Two people communicate
– Both are free to speak and listen at the same time.
 Comparison Chart
Basis for
Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex
Comparison
Direction of Two-directional, Two-directional,
Unidirectional
Communication one at a time simultaneously
Sender can send Sender can send
Sender can only
Send / Receive and receive data, and receive
send data
but one at a data
time simultaneously
Worst
Best performing
performing Better than
Performance mode of
mode of Simplex
transmission
transmission
Keyboard and
Example Walkie-talkie Telephone
monitor
NETWORKS
 Overview
1. Networks
2. Network Criteria
3. Physical structures
 Networks
• It is a set of devices (nodes) connected by communication
links (media).
– Device can be a host (or end system)
• Ex: Large computer, desktop, laptop,
workstation, cellular
phone, or security system.
– Device can also be a connecting device
• Router, which connects the network to other networks,
• Switch, which connects devices together,
• Modem (modulator-demodulator), which changes the form
of data, and so on.
• Devices are connected using wired or wireless transmission media
such as cable or air.
• Most network use distributed processing.
1. Network Criteria
 1. Network Criteria
• A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.

1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Security
 1. Network Criteria cont..
1. Performance
– Measured in many ways, including transit and response
time.
1. Transit time:
– Amount of time required for a message to travel
from one device to another.
2. Response time:
– Elapsed time between an inquiry and beginning
of a
response.
 1. Network Criteria cont..
1. Performance
– It depends on a number of factors, including
1. Number of users
2. Type of transmission medium
3. Capabilities of the connected hardware
4. Efficiency of the software.
 1. Network Criteria cont..
1. Performance
– It is evaluated by two contradictory networking metrics:
1. Throughput
– More
2. Delay
– Less
– Contradictory : If we try to send more data to the network,
we may increase throughput but we increase the delay
because of traffic congestion in the network.
 1. Network Criteria cont..
2. Reliability
– It is measured by the
1. Frequency of failure
2. Time it takes a link to recover from a failure
3. Network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
 1. Network Criteria cont..
3. Security
– Network security issues include
1. Protecting data from unauthorized access
2. Protecting data from damage and development
3. Implementing policies and procedures
for recovery from breaches and data losses.
 A simple
network
Computers
Printer

Cable
Sharing a printer in a stand-
alone environment
Sharing a printer in a networking
environment
 Common network elements

Printer
Server Clients (shared peripherals)

Data
 Applications of Networks
• Marketing and sales Ex: online reservation of Hotels
• Financial Services Ex: online Banking
• Manufacturing Ex: CAD
• Electronic Messaging Ex: E-mail
• Directory Services Ex: Centralized database
• Information Services Ex: Bulletin boards
• Tele conferencing Ex: Voice conferencing
• Cellular Telephone Ex: Mobile phone communication
• Cable Television Ex: Video on Request.
2. Physical Structures
 2.1 Type of Connection
• Two types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
1. Point-to-point
– A dedicated link between two devices.
 2.1 Type of Connection cont..
2. Multipoint (Multi drop)
– More than two specific devices share a single link.
 2.2 Physical Topology
• Arranging computers in a Network.
• Geometric representation of relationship of all the links
and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
• There are four basic topologies:
1. Mesh topology
2. Star topology
3. Bus topology
4. Ring topology
 1. Mesh topology
– Every link is dedicated point-to-point link
– The term dedicated means that the link carries
traffic only between the two devices it connects
 1. Mesh
topology
• To connect n number of nodes
– Each node must be connected to n – 1 nodes.
– We need n ( n - 1) / 2 duplex-mode links.
• To accommodate that many links, every device must have n – 1
input/output (I/O) ports to be connected to the other n – 1
stations.
• Example:
– 8 devices in mesh.
– Number of links = 8 (8-1)/2 = 28
– Number of ports per device = 8 –1 = 7
1. Mesh topology cont..
Advantages:
1. Eliminate the traffic problems
– Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
– If one link becomes unusable, it does not weaken the entire
system.
3. There is privacy or security
– Only the intended recipient sees the message.
– Prevent other users from gaining access to messages.
4. Links make fault identification and fault isolation easy
– Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems.
– Network manager discover the exact location of fault and helps
in finding its cause and solution.
1. Mesh topology cont..

Disadvantage:
• It is related to amount of cabling and number of I/O ports
required.
1. Installation and reconnection are difficult.
2. Bulk of the wiring (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can be
greater than the available space.
3. Hardware (I/O ports and cable) can be expensive.
• For these reasons it is implemented in a limited fashion.
1. Mesh topology cont..
• Ex: used as a backbone connecting the main computers of a
hybrid network that can include several other topologies.
 1. Mesh topology cont..
• Ex: Connection of telephone regional offices
– In which each regional office needs to be connected to
every other regional office.
 2. Star Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller (hub).
• No direct link between the devices.
• It does not allow direct traffic between devices.
• Controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to
another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data
to the other connected device.
2. Star Topology cont..
Advantages:
1. It is less expensive than a mesh topology.
2. Each device needs only one link and one I/O port.
3. It is easy to install and reconfigure.
4. Far less cabling needs to be housed.
5. Easy to setup and modify (Additions, moves, and deletions required
one connection between that device and the hub).
6. It is robust
– If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links
remain
active.
7. Easy fault identification and fault isolation.
8. Hub can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective
links.
2. Star Topology cont..
Disadvantage
1. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
2. More cabling is required than ring or bus topologies.
Example:
• Used in LANs
• Often used in High-speed LANs.
• n devices are connected using ‘n’ links.
• 4 devices are connected using ‘4’ links.
 3. Bus Topology
• Multipoint configuration.
• One long cable acts as a backbone to link all devices in a network.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
• As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as
it travels farther and farther.
• For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps and on the
distance between those taps.
 3. Bus Topology cont..
Advantages Disadvantages
It is very simple to install. It is very difficult to troubleshoot.
It uses less cable than other It provides slow data transfer
topologies. speed.
It is relatively inexpensive. A single fault can bring the entire
network down.
Used in small networks. Difficult to add new devices.
Require modification or
replacement of the
backbone.
It is easy to understand.
 3. Bus Topology cont..
• It is the one of the first topologies used in the design of early
local area networks.
• Traditional Ethernet LANs use this topology.
 4. Ring Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point
configuration to
neighbors.
• Signal is passed from device to device until it
reaches
destination.
• Signal is passed in one direction only.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
• Repeater regenerates the bits and pass.
4. Ring Topology cont..
• Advantages
1. Easy of install and reconfigure
• Each device is linked (either physically or logically) to
only its immediate neighbors.
• To add or delete a device – change only two connections.
2. Fault isolation is simple.
• A signal is circulating at all times.
• If one device does not receive a signal within a specified
period, it can issue an alarm.
• Alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its
location.
4. Ring Topology cont..
• Disadvantage
1. Unidirectional traffic
• A break in the ring can disable the entire network.
• This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch
capable of closing off the break.
– Secondary ring is redundant.
– It is used as a backup in case the
primary ring fails.
 4. Ring Topology cont..
• Ex: IBM introduced its Token-Ring local area network (LAN)
 6-1 MULTIPLEXING

Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two

devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set of
techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link. As data and
telecommunications use increases, so does traffic.

Topics discussed in this section:

Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
6.67
 Figure 6.1 Dividing a link into channels

6.68
 Figure 6.2 Categories of multiplexing

6.69
 Figure 6.3 Frequency-division multiplexing

6.70
 Note
FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.

6.71
 Figure 6.4 FDM process

6.72
 Figure 6.5 FDM demultiplexing example

6.73
 Example 6.1

Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4

kHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link
with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.
Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a
different bandwidth, as shown in Figure 6.6. We use the 20-
to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to 28-
kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28- to 32-
kHz bandwidth for the third one. Then we combine them as
shown in Figure 6.6.
6.74
 Figure 6.6 Example 6.1

6.75
 Example 6.2

Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be

multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of
the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?

Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This
means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
as shown in Figure 6.7.

6.76
 Figure 6.7 Example 6.2

6.77
 Example 6.3

Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1

Mbps, use a satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design an
appropriate configuration, using FDM.

Solution
The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four
channels, each channel having a 250-kHz bandwidth.
Each digital channel of 1 Mbps is modulated such that
each 4 bits is modulated to 1 Hz. One solution is 16-QAM
modulation. Figure 6.8 shows one possible configuration.

6.78
 Figure 6.8 Example 6.3

6.79
 Figure 6.9 Analog hierarchy

6.80
 Example 6.4

The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) uses two

bands. The first band of 824 to 849 MHz is used for
sending, and 869 to 894 MHz is used for receiving. Each
user has a bandwidth of 30 kHz in each direction. How
many people can use their cellular phones
simultaneously?
Solution
Each band is 25 MHz. If we divide 25 MHz by 30 kHz, we
get 833.33. In reality, the band is divided into 832
channels. Of these, 42 channels are used for control, which
means only 790 channels are available for cellular phone
users.
6.81
 Figure 6.10 Wavelength-division multiplexing

6.82
 Note
WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.

6.83
 Figure 6.11 Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing

6.84
 Figure 6.12 TDM

6.85
 Note

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate

channels into one high-rate one.

6.86
 Figure 6.13 Synchronous time-division multiplexing

6.87
 Note
In synchronous TDM, the data rate
of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is n times shorter.

6.88
 Example 6.5

In Figure 6.13, the data rate for each input connection is 3

kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what
is the duration of (a) each input slot, (b) each output slot,
and (c) each frame?

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This
means that the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The
duration of the input time slot is 1 ms (same as bit
duration).

6.89
 Example 6.5 (continued)

b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the

input time slot. This means that the duration of the
output time slot is 1/3 ms.

c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the

duration of a frame is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms. The duration
of a frame is the same as the duration of an input unit.

6.90
 Example 6.6

Figure 6.14 shows synchronous TDM with a data stream

for each input and one data stream for the output. The unit
of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration, (b) the
output bit duration, (c) the output bit rate, and (d) the
output frame rate.
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:
1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.

b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit

duration, or ¼ μs.
6.91
 Example 6.6 (continued)

c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit

duration or 1/(4μs) or 4 Mbps. This can also be
deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4 times as
fast as any input rate; so the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps
= 4 Mbps.

d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So

the frame rate is 1,000,000 frames per second. Because
we are sending 4 bits in each frame, we can verify the
result of the previous question by multiplying the frame
rate by the number of bits per frame.

6.92
 Figure 6.14 Example 6.6

6.93
 Example 6.7

Four 1-kbps connections are multiplexed together. A unit is

1 bit. Find (a) the duration of 1 bit before multiplexing, (b)
the transmission rate of the link, (c) the duration of a time
slot, and (d) the duration of a frame.

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The duration of 1 bit before multiplexing is 1 / 1 kbps,
or 0.001 s (1 ms).

b. The rate of the link is 4 times the rate of a connection, or

4 kbps.
6.94
 Example 6.7 (continued)

c. The duration of each time slot is one-fourth of the

duration of each bit before multiplexing, or 1/4 ms or
250 μs. Note that we can also calculate this from the
data rate of the link, 4 kbps. The bit duration is the
inverse of the data rate, or 1/4 kbps or 250 μs.

d. The duration of a frame is always the same as the

duration of a unit before multiplexing, or 1 ms. We can
also calculate this in another way. Each frame in this
case has four time slots. So the duration of a frame is 4
times 250 μs, or 1 ms.
6.95
 Figure 6.15 Interleaving

6.96
 Example 6.8

Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each channel

sends 100 bytes /s and we multiplex 1 byte per channel,
show the frame traveling on the link, the size of the frame,
the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and the bit rate for
the link.
Solution
The multiplexer is shown in Figure 6.16. Each frame
carries 1 byte from each channel; the size of each frame,
therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits. Because each channel is
sending 100 bytes/s and a frame carries 1 byte from each
channel, the frame rate must be 100 frames per second.
The bit rate is 100 × 32, or 3200 bps.
6.97
 Figure 6.16 Example 6.8

6.98
 Example 6.9

A multiplexer combines four 100-kbps channels using a

time slot of 2 bits. Show the output with four arbitrary
inputs. What is the frame rate? What is the frame
duration? What is the bit rate? What is the bit duration?

Solution
Figure 6.17 shows the output for four arbitrary inputs. The
link carries 50,000 frames per second. The frame duration
is therefore 1/50,000 s or 20 μs. The frame rate is 50,000
frames per second, and each frame carries 8 bits; the bit
rate is 50,000 × 8 = 400,000 bits or 400 kbps. The bit
duration is 1/400,000 s, or 2.5 μs.
6.99
 Figure 6.17 Example 6.9

6.100
 Figure 6.18 Empty slots

6.101
 Figure 6.19 Multilevel multiplexing

6.102
 Figure 6.20 Multiple-slot multiplexing

6.103
 Figure 6.21 Pulse stuffing

6.104
 Figure 6.22 Framing bits

6.105
 Example 6.10

We have four sources, each creating 250 characters per

second. If the interleaved unit is a character and 1
synchronizing bit is added to each frame, find (a) the data
rate of each source, (b) the duration of each character in
each source, (c) the frame rate, (d) the duration of each
frame, (e) the number of bits in each frame, and (f) the data
rate of the link.

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each source is 250 × 8 = 2000 bps = 2
kbps.

6.106
 Example 6.10 (continued)

b. Each source sends 250 characters per second;

therefore, the duration of a character is 1/250 s, or
4 ms.
c. Each frame has one character from each source, which
means the link needs to send 250 frames per second to
keep the transmission rate of each source.
d. The duration of each frame is 1/250 s, or 4 ms. Note
that the duration of each frame is the same as the
duration of each character coming from each source.
e. Each frame carries 4 characters and 1 extra
synchronizing bit. This means that each frame is
4 × 8 + 1 = 33 bits.
6.107
 Example 6.11

Two channels, one with a bit rate of 100 kbps and another
with a bit rate of 200 kbps, are to be multiplexed. How this
can be achieved? What is the frame rate? What is the
frame duration? What is the bit rate of the link?

Solution
We can allocate one slot to the first channel and two slots
to the second channel. Each frame carries 3 bits. The
frame rate is 100,000 frames per second because it carries
1 bit from the first channel. The bit rate is 100,000 frames/s
× 3 bits per frame, or 300 kbps.

6.108
 Figure 6.26 TDM slot comparison

6.109