Lesson 1.

COURSE DESCRIPTION
The development of an organization's human resources is becoming more
critical as an organization attempts to survive in an increasingly turbulent,
dynamic, and competitive global marketplace. This course will examine the
role of human resource development in maintaining an organization's
competitive position in today's environment. In doing so, it will identify
assessment techniques that will assist the manager in determining the general
training needs of the organization and the specific needs of the employees and
it will introduce practices that help managers to successfully transfer training
to the workplace so that organizational efficiency and effectiveness improve.
 COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course, you will be able to:
• Understand recent approaches to training and development.
• Understand current issues facing the training profession.
• Communicate about employee training and development.
• Apply theories of learning to the training function.
• Develop a training module/program.
• Sponsor a training program for PUP students.
 COURSE CONTENTS
1.FUNDAMENTAL LEARNING PRINCIPLES
2.ESSENTIAL FOUNDATIONS OF TRAINING
3.TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR
DESIGNING TRAINING PROGRAM
4.FACILITATING TRAINING PROGRAM
5.EVALUATING TRAINING PROGRAM
RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS/REFERENCES
LESSON 1. FUNDAMENTAL LEARNING
PRINCIPLES
IS TRAINING AND LEARNING THE SAME
CONCEPTS?
 NATURE OF LEARNING

People tend to get confused with the concepts of training and learning. While
these are two different concepts, they are basically closely related.

Training is done to help people learn. In like manner, the need to learn is the
impetus to conduct training. Indeed, it is learning that enables training to exist
and stay alive. Yet, there is always the possibility that learning might not be
sustained even after training.
The concept of learning can mean a number
of things. LEARNING is defined
technically as a broad range of processes
whereby an individual acquires capabilities,
such as knowledge, skills, attitudes and
values.
 In a work setting, the possession of these
capabilities is necessary for a person to
perform a task or a number of tasks
competently. Thus, when learning happens
in a work environment, the process is called
WORKPLACE LEARNING.
Ordinarily, LEARNING refers to a body of
knowledge or skills that one acquires from a
particular source.
-is defined in terms of the outcome of an
activity.
-it can be achieved by systematic and relatively
formal processes, one of which is training.
The trainer is responsible in determining the
subject matter or content of the training
programs since these are directly related to the
capability or competency requirements.
Nonetheless, the approach to be applied in
learning such subject matters remains to be the
task of the trainers.
Thus, every trainer should be familiar with the
fundamental theories and principles that govern
the development of the learners. This course
advocates the trainers’ need to appreciate
learning styles, adult learning principles,
learning domains, and learning measurement.
 LEARNING STYLES
It describes the attitudes and behaviors which
determine an individual’s preferred mode of
learning.
it shows that learners are not a homogeneous
group.
A learner is also called a trainee or a participant in a
training program.
-each exhibits one or more dominant learning styles
-every trainer should be concerned about how people
learn; appreciate intricate nature of the learners; use
appropriate approaches; be aware of learning processes
and styles of learners in order to customize instruction.
KOLB’S LEARNING CYCLE
Four stages:

• Concrete experience
• Reflective
observation
• Abstract
conceptualization
• Active
experimentation
KOLB’S LEARNING CYCLE
Four learning
styles:

• Diverger
• Assimilator
• Converger
• Accommodator
MATRIX OF KOLB’S LEARNING STYLE WITH TWO PREFERRED STYLES.
THE MATRIX ALSO HIGHLIGHTS KOLB'S TERMINOLOGY FOR THE
FOUR LEARNING STYLES

Reflective Observation
Active Experimentation (Watching)
(Doing)
Concrete Experience Accommodating
Diverging (CE/RO)
(Feeling) (CE/AE)
Abstract
Conceptualization Converging (AC/AE) Assimilating (AC/RO)
(Thinking)
DIVERGER (feeling and watching -
CE/RO) These people are able to look at things from different perspectives.
They are sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather information
and use imagination to solve problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations from
several different viewpoints.
Kolb called this style 'diverging' because these people perform better in situations that
require ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming. People with a diverging learning
style have broad cultural interests and like to gather information.
They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend to be strong in the arts.
People with the diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open mind and to receive
personal feedback.
ASSIMILATOR (watching and thinking -
AC/RO)
• The Assimilating learning preference involves a concise, logical approach. Ideas and concepts are more
important than people.
• These people require good clear explanation rather than a practical opportunity. They excel at
understanding wide-ranging information and organizing it in a clear, logical format.
• People with an assimilating learning style are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and
abstract concepts. People with this style are more attracted to logically sound theories than approaches
based on practical value.
• This learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science careers. In formal learning
situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having time to
think things through.
 CONVERGER (DOING AND THINKING - AC/AE)

People with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to find solutions to
practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects.
• People with a converging learning style are best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. They can
solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions to questions and problems.
• People with a converging learning style are more attracted to technical tasks and problems than social or
interpersonal issues. A converging learning style enables specialist and technology abilities.
• People with a converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to work with practical
applications.
 ACCOMMODATOR (DOING AND FEELING – CE/AE)

The Accommodating learning style is 'hands-on,' and relies on intuition rather

than logic. These people use other people's analysis, and prefer to take a
practical, experiential approach. They are attracted to new challenges and
experiences, and to carrying out plans.
They commonly act on 'gut' instinct rather than logical analysis. People with
an accommodating learning style will tend to rely on others for information
than carry out their own analysis. This learning style is prevalent within the
general population.
Also derived from the learning cycle model are
the following types of learners:
1.Activist
2.Reflector
3.Theorist
4.Pragmatist
 ACTIVIST LEARNER
Prefers to be involved in an experience and does it in an
open-minded manner.

Enjoys new experiences and opportunities from which

he/she can learn. The activist is happy to be in the limelight.
He/she prefers to be active rather than just sitting and
listening.
 REFLECTOR LEARNER
Prefers to gather information and carefully considers it before
reaching a conclusion.

He/she chooses to observe, think and absorb information

before acting on something. He/she likes to review what
happened and what he/she learned. The reflector prefers to
come up with decisions in his/her own time and does not like
to feel under pressure.
 THEORIST LEARNER
Systematically looks at the problem in a logical way.

He/she tends to be analytical and inquisitive. Hence, he/she

is capable of developing conclusions in the form of theory.
This type of learner likes to be intellectually stretched and
feels comfortable with models and systems.
 PRAGMATIST LEARNER
Is a realistic person who likes practical solution to a
problem.

He/she wants to try out things and dislikes too much theory.
He/she acts quickly and confidently and is usually a down-
to-earth person. He/she wants to try out new ideas and
responds to problem as a challenge.
 ADULT LEARNING PRINCIPLES

ANDRAGOGY is the term applied to

adult learning. It is self-directed and
motivated by a desire to learn. It is
problem-centered and enhanced by the
experiences of the learner.
 ASSUMPTIONS ON ADULT LEARNERS BY MALCOLM
KNOWLES (1984)

Andragogy is premised on the following assumptions

about the characteristics of adult learners:
1. Self-concept
2. Experience
3. Readiness to learn
4. Orientation to learning
 SELF-CONCEPT

As a person matures, his self-

concept changes from
dependency to self-direction.
 EXPERIENCE

As a person matures, he
accumulates a growing reservoir
of experience that becomes an
increasing resource for learning.
 READINESS TO LEARN

As a person matures, his readiness

to learn becomes increasingly
oriented to the developmental tasks
of his social roles.
 ORIENTATION TO LEARNING

As a person matures, his time perspective

changes from one of postponed application of
knowledge to immediacy of application.
Accordingly his orientation toward learning
shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one
of problem-centeredness.
In addition to the above assumptions, the following
attributes are also believed to characterize adult learners:
1. Knowledgeable of the Purpose of Learning.
2. Self-directed and Responsible Grown-Ups
3. Rich in Experiences
4. Problem-Centered
5. Internal Motivators
KNOWLEDGEABLE OF THE PURPOSE OF LEARNING

Adults need to know why they are learning

something before investing time in the
learning activity. For this reason, the trainer
must ensure that the learners know the
purpose of the training as early as possible.
SELF-DIRECTED AND RESPONSIBLE GROWN-UPS

Adults enter any learning situation with an

image of themselves as self-directing and
responsible grown-ups. Hence, the trainer
must help adult learners identify their needs
and direct their own learning experience.
 RICH IN EXPERIENCE

Adults come to the learning activity with a

wealth of experience. They are also in a
position to contribute to the learning process.
Therefore, the trainer must be able to identify
ways of building on and making use of the
adult’s hard-earned experience.
 PROBLEM CENTERED
Adults enter into a learning experience with a
problem-centered approach to learning. They are
willing to devote energy to the learning process if they
believe that it will help them solve a problem or
perform a task better. Thus, it is helpful for the trainer
to determine the needs and interests of the learners and
develop the contents in response to these needs.
 INTERNAL MOTIVATORS

Adults are motivated by internal factors such

as self-esteem. Hence, the trainer should
ensure that the internal motivation is not
blocked by barriers such as poor self-concept
or time constraints. The trainer must create a
safe learning climate.
 PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELINES IN
CONDUCTING ADULT LEARNING ACTIVITIES
On the nature of the adult learner:
1. Adults are self-directed; hence they are interested in mutual inquiry;
2. Adults can diagnose their own needs
3. Adults are rich resource of learning.
4. Adults learn best in an informal environment
5. Adults center their learning on problems.
6. Adults are motivated, not taught to learn.
7. Adults have a unique way of learning.
 PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELINES IN
CONDUCTING ADULT LEARNING ACTIVITIES
On the process of adult learning:
1. Learning process is both intellectual and emotional.
2. Learning is highly unique and individual.
3. Learning is consequence of experience.
4. Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process.
5. Learning is an evolutionary process.
6. Learning, sometimes, is a painful process.
 PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELINES IN
CONDUCTING ADULT LEARNING ACTIVITIES
On the Learning Contitons for Adult Learners
1. Non-threatening learning environment where people
are allowed to make mistakes and express their
differences in ideas, perceptions, and ways of doing
things. The trainer should treat the learners with
respect, understanding, and genuine concern.
 PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELINES IN
CONDUCTING ADULT LEARNING ACTIVITIES
On the Learning Contitons for Adult Learners
2. Atmosphere of openness that nurtures a uniquely
personal nature of learning. Training should
tolerate ambiguity and encourage self-discovery.
The trainer should invite the learners to share their
knowledge and experiences.
 PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELINES IN
CONDUCTING ADULT LEARNING ACTIVITIES
On the Learning Contitons for Adult Learners
3. Learning condition that encourages learners to be cooperative
and allows self-evaluation. It should enable people to see
themselves as they truly are with the help of their peers. Hence, the
trainer should establish a clear direction for each session based on
the needs of the learners. He should be well organized that it is easy
to be flexible when the learner’s needs are different from what is
anticipated.
Andragogy is often differentiated with
PEDAGOGY which is the use of instruction for
child learners. While many education experts
have different views on the assumptions and
context of explaining the two learning
approaches, they are commonly compared on the
basis shown in the table that follows.
 ANDRAGOGY AND PEDAGOGY
ANDRAGOGY PEDAGOGY
Learners are called “participants” Learners are called “students”
Learning style is independent Learning style is dependent
The assumption is that learners have experiences Learners are inexperienced and/or uninformed
to contribute or share
Active training methods are used Passive training methods such as lecture are used
Learners determine timing and pacing of the Trainer controls timing and pace
learning process
Participants involvement is essential to the Learner contribute little to the experience
learning process
Learning is real-life and problem-centered Learning is content-centered
Learners are seen as primary sources of ideas and Trainer is seen as the primary resource who
examples provides ideas and examples
 LEARNING DOMAINS

Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist working at the

University of Chicago, developed his TAXONOMY OF
EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES in 1956.

His taxonomy became a key tool in structuring and understanding

the process of learning. He proposed that learning fits into one of
three psychological domains: COGNITIVE, PSYCHOMOTOR
& AFFECTIVE.
The COGNITIVE DOMAIN is
knowledge or mind based. It is
primarily concerned with knowing
or acquisition of information.
The PSYCHOMOTOR
DOMAIN is skill based. It is
primarily concerned with doing
and the production of a product by
the learner.
The AFFECTIVE DOMAIN is
based on behavioral aspects and
may be labeled as beliefs. It is
primarily concerned with attitudes
and feelings.
 LEVELS OF
COGNITIVE DOMAIN
The cognitive domain has three practical
instructional levels: FACT,
UNDERSTANDING and
APPLICATION.
 LEVELS OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN
The fact level is a single concept and uses the verbs like define, identify, and
list.

The understanding level puts two or more concepts together. Typical verbs
for this include describe, compare and contrast.

The application level puts two or more concepts together to form something
new. The verbs are generally limited to words like explain, apply and analyze.
Delivery in this domain is usually through a
lecture/presentation. The evaluation uses
subjective and objective test items. An
elaboration of the levels of the cognitive
domain in the next table shows six levels
arranged from lower order thinking skills to
higher order thinking skills.
LEVELS OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN
In developing objectives in the
cognitive domain, there are
behavioral verbs that are
appropriate for each level.
 COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF THE BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

CATEGORY/LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES/VERBS

Ability to recall previously Define, identify, list, name, recall, record, relate,
Knowledge
learned material repeat, underline, circle, label, outline
Choose, cite examples of, demonstrate use of,
describe, determine, differentiate, discriminate,
Ability to grasp meaning, discuss, explain, express, give in own words,
Comprehension
explain, restate ideas identify, interpret, locate, pick, report, restate,
reviews, recognize, select, tell, translate, respond,
practice, simulate
Apply, compute, construct, demonstrate,
dramatize, employ, generalize, illustrate,
Ability to use learned
Application interpret, operate, operationalize, practice,
material in new situations
produce, relate, schedule, shop, use, utilize,
initiate.
 COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF THE BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
CATEGORY/LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES/VERBS
Analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare,
conclude, contrast, correlate, criticize, deduce, debate,
detect, determine, develop, diagram, differentiate,
Ability to separate material into distinguish, draw conclusions, estimate, evaluate,
Analysis component parts and show examine, experiment, identify, infer, inspect, inventory,
relationships between parts predict, question, relate, solve, test, diagnose

Arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create,

Ability to put together the design, develop, formulate, manage, modify, organize,
separate ideas to form new plan, prepare, produce, propose, predict, reconstruct,
Synthesis
whole, establish new set-up, synthesize, systematize, devise
relationships

Appraise, assess, choose, compare, critique, estimate,

Ability to judge the worth of evaluate, judge, justify, measure, rate, revise, score,
Evaluation
material against stated criteria select, validate, value, test
Recently, the cognitive domain of the
Bloom’s Taxonomy was modified into six
thinking skills: remembering,
understanding, applying, analyzing,
evaluating and creating.
 MODIFIED COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF THE BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

CATEGORY/LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL

OBJECTIVES/VERBS
Define, Duplicate, List,
memorize, recall repeat,
Recall or reorganization of specific reproduce, state
Remembering information, that is, element in growth of
knowledge and information

Constructing meaning from oral, written, and Classify, Describe, discuss,

graphics messages through interpreting, explain, identify, locate,
exemplifying classifying, summarizing, paraphrase, recognize, report,
Understanding inferring, comparing, and explaining; select, translate
understanding the uses and implications of
terms, facts, methods, procedures and
concepts
 MODIFIED COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF THE BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

CATEGORY/LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL

OBJECTIVES/VERBS
Choose, demonstrate,
Carrying out or using a procedure through dramatize, employ,
executing or implementing; also relates and refers illustrate, interpret,
Applying to situations where learned material is used through operate, schedule,
products like models, presentations, interviews, and sketch, solve, use, write
simulations

Breaking material into constituent parts, Appraise, compare,

determining how the parts relate to one another and contrast, criticize,
to an overall structure or purpose through differentiate,
Analyzing differentiating, organizing, and attributing; taking discriminate, distinguish,
concepts apart; breaking them down, analyzing examine, experiment,
assumptions and poor logic, and evaluating question, test
relevancy
 MODIFIED COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF THE BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

CATEGORY/LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL

OBJECTIVES/VERBS
Appraise, argue,
defend, evaluate,
Making judgments based on criteria and standards
judge, select, support,
through checking and critiquing; setting standards, value
Evaluating
judging using standards, evidence and rubrics;
accepting or rejecting based on criteria

Putting elements together to form a coherent or Assemble, construct,

functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new create, design,
pattern or structure through generating planning, or develop, formulate,
Creating
producing; learners will put things together; bring write
together various parts; plan experiments, put
information together in new and creative ways
 LEVELS OF
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

The three practical instructional levels

in the psychomotor domain include
imitation, practice and habit.
The psychomotor domain is steeped
in a demonstration delivery. The
first level, initiation, is simply a
return of the demonstration under
the watchful eye of the trainer.
The practice level is proficiency
building experience that may be
conducted by the learner without
direct oversight of the trainer.
The habit level is reached when the
learner can perform the skill twice
the time that it takes the trainer or
an expert to perform.
An elaboration of Bloom’s description of the
psychomotor domain was developed by
Dave (1975). This includes series of
processes that take place to develop the skills
of the learner: imitation, manipulation,
precision, articulation, and naturalization.
 LEVELS OF
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
NATURALIZATION

ARTICULATION

PRECISION

MANIPULATION

IMITATION
 IMITATION

Entails observing and patterning behavior after

someone else. Here, the learner repeats an act
that has been demonstrated or explained by the
trainer. Performance at this stage may be of low
quality.
 MANIPULATION

Involves continuing practice of a

skill or sequence of tasks until it
becomes habitual on the part of the
learner.
 PRECISION

Means that an acceptable level of skill

has been attained as shown in a quick,
smooth and accurate performance of
some tasks.
 ARTICULATION

the skill is developed that the learner

can modify movement patterns to fit
certain requirements or to address a
problem situation.
 NATURALIZATION

The individual begins to

experiment and creates new
ways of doing the tasks.
The psychomotor domain includes physical
movement, coordination, and use of the
motor-skill areas. Development of these
skills requires practice and is measured in
terms of speed, precision, distance,
procedures, or techniques in execution.
The delivery is demonstration and proficiency
building in nature. The evaluation is a
performance or skill test. The content needed to
be known to do the skill is cognitive and should be
treated accordingly. The psychomotor domain
entails as a factor, use of an equipment or tool, and
assessing the activity other than paper/pencil test.
Learning objectives in the
psychomotor domain entail the
use of verbs corresponding to
the process skills development.
 PROCESSES ACTION WORDS IN THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

PROCESS BEHAVIOR DESCRIPTION ACTION WORDS

Begin, Assemble, attempt, carry out, copy, calibrate,
construct, dissect, duplicate, follow, mimic, move,
practice, proceed, repeat, reproduce, respond,
Imitation Copy action of another organize, sketch, start, try, volunteer

Acquire, assemble, complete, conduct, do, execute,

Reproduce activity from improve, maintain, make, manipulate, operate, pace,
Manipulation perform, produce, progress, use
instruction

Achieve, accomplish, advance, automatize, exceed,

Execute skill reliably and excel, master, reach, refine, succeed, surpass,
Precision transcend
independent of help
 PROCESSES ACTION WORDS IN THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

PROCESS BEHAVIOR ACTION WORDS

DESCRIPTION
Adapt, alter, change, excel, rearrange,
Adapt and integrate reorganize, revise, surpass, transcend
Articulation expertise to satisfy a
non-standard objective

Automatic, Arrange, combine, excel, rearrange,

unconscious mastery of reorganize, revise, surpass, transcend
Naturalization activity and related
skills and propose new
ways of doing
 LEVELS OF AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

The affective domain is concerned primarily

with feelings, attitudes, and behaviors. It
describes the way people react emotionally
and their ability to feel the pain or joy of
another.
Affective objectives in training
typically target the awareness and
growth in attitudes, emotions and
feelings. In reality, any cognitive and
psychomotor objective has some
affective component in it.
5 STAGES OF AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
CHARACTERIZING

ORGANIZING

VALUING
RESPONDING
RECEIVING
 RECEIVING
Entails creating awareness on the part of the
learner, the extent of which, would determine
his/her willingness to listen. At this stage, the
attitude demonstrated by the trainer is very
important to the learner.
 RESPONDING

Is defined as the active participation on

the part of the learner. Here, the learner
is attentive and reacts to a particular
phenomenon.
 VALUING
Is defined as the worth or value a person
attaches to a particular object, phenomenon,
or behavior pertinent to the conduct of the
training. This can range from simple
acceptance to the more complex states of
commitment.
 ORGANIZING

The learner incorporates the

new information into the
existing practice or system.
 CHARACTERIZING

Entails internalizing values on the part of the

learner. This occurs when the learner has
truly become an advocate of the new
information the he/she has learned.
Originally, the affective domain
was categorized into three levels
only: AWARENESS,
DISTINCTION &
INTEGRATION.
The third level, INTEGRATION, is
behavioral and requires the learner to
evaluate and synthesize. The testing in
the first two levels is cognitive,
whereas the third level requires an
affective checklist.
 STAGES AND ACTION WORDS IN THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
STAGES DESCRIPTION ACTION WORDS
Ask, choose, describe, follow, give, hold,
Being aware of
identify, locate, name, point to, select, sit,
Receiving something in the
erect, reply, use
learning environment
Answer, assist, aid, comply, conform,
Showing some new
discuss, greet, help, label, perform,
Responding behaviors as a result
practice, present, read, recite, report, select,
of experience
tell, write
Complete, demonstrate, differentiate,
Showing some
explain, follow, form, initiate, invite, join,
Valuing definite involvement
justify, propose, read, report, select, share
or commitment
study, work
 STAGES AND ACTION WORDS IN THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

STAGES DESCRIPTION ACTION WORDS

Adhere, alter, arrange, combine,
Integrating a new
compare, complete, defend, explain,
value into one’s
Organizing formulate, generalize, identify,
general set of
integrate, modify, order organize,
values
prepare, relate, synthesize
Act, discriminate, display influence,
Acting consistently listen, modify, perform, practice,
Characterizing
with the new value propose, qualify, question, revise,
serve, solve, verify
 MEASURES OF LEARNING
Learning activities vary in form. Training is
one of these learning activities. The International
Accounting Education of Standards Board (IAESB) of
the International Federation of Accountants has
identified the following examples of learning activities
for professionals:
• Participation in courses, conferences, and seminars
• Development of self-learning modules or organizing on-
the-job training for new software, systems, procedures
or techniques for application in professional role
• Publication of professional or academic writing
• Participation and work on technical committees
• Teaching a course or continuing professional development
session in an area related to professional responsibilities
• Attendance to formal study related to professional
responsibilities
• Speaking in conferences, briefing sessions or discussion
groups
• Writing technical articles, papers, and books
• Research for application in a professional role
• Reading literature or journals
• Professional re-examination or formal testing professional
 Learning activities can be measured in terms of the
effort or time pent or through a valid assessment of the
competence achieved or developed as a result of the
activity. For professional bodies requiring continuing
development for members, the learning activities should
also be verifiable.
Three approaches can be used to measure learning:

(1) INPUT-BASED APPROACH

(2) OUTPUT-BASED APPROACH
(3) COMBINATION APPROACH
(1) INPUT-BASED APPROACH
- measures learning in terms of the activity
conducted, expressed as number of hours or equivalent
learning units. It utilizes proxy for measuring the
development and maintenance of competence. It is easy
to measure and likewise, easily verifiable. This approach,
however, does not always guarantee that learning
outcomes and competence are developed.
 In an input-based approach, the evidences for
verification include the following:
1. Course outline and teaching materials
2. Attendance record, registration forms or
confirmation of attendance from training service
provider
3. Independent assessment that a learning activity has
occurred
3. Confirmation by an instructor, mentor, or tutor of
participation
4. Confirmation by an employer of participation in
an in-house program
(2) OUTPUT-BASED APPROACH
- measures learning in terms of outcomes. Does
the learner demonstrate, develop, and maintain
relevant competence? This requires a valid
competence assessment method and an objectively
verified result.
 The evidences for verification in an output-based
approach include the following:
1. Verification of achieved learning through learning
or performance outcomes
2. Evaluation of written or published material by a
reviewer
3. Assessment of achieved learning
4. Publication of a professional article or results of
research projects
5. Periodic re-examination
6. Expertise or other qualification
7. Work logs that have been objectively verified with
reference to external competency map
8. Standard competency maps which are used by
members in their assessment and in accumulating
needed evidences
9. Objective assessment against a competency map
developed either by the employer or by the
professional body as to the individual’s level of
competence
(3) COMBINATION APPROACH
- uses both the measures and the means of
verification applied in both the input and output-
based approaches or some modifications thereof.
 BARRIERS TO LEARNING
A good grasp of the learning principles does not
necessarily entail effective learning activities. It is not
wise to assume that everything the trainer conveys will
be sufficiently absorbed by the learners
 Barriers to learning exist in almost all learning
environments. These barriers can be classified into five:
(1) Language and speech barriers
(2) Psychological barriers
(3) Environmental barriers
(4) Learning attention span barriers
(5) Barriers attributable to the trainers
(1) Language and Speech Barriers
- usually originate from the training provider, including
the trainer. The trainer can be ambiguous words or
concepts used in the training which tend to confuse the
learner. This is an indication that the trainer failed to do
some conceptual clarifications. It can also be in the use of
jargon that is unfamiliar to the learner as well as unusual
words or phrases that the learners does not understand.
Speech barriers refer to tedious and vague
presentation that may not be translated into the
learner’s consciousness or awareness. Wordy or
verbose learning materials also pose barriers to
learning.
(2) Psychological Barriers
- pertain to the learner’s state that hinders
him/her to absorb the learning. These can be in the
form of mood, pressures, attitudes or behaviors.
Negative moods tend to distract the learner’s attention
from the learning activity, which leads to very minimal
knowledge transformation or none at all.
Pressures include the thought of unfinished work,
unresolved domestic situations, money problems,
health worries, relationship problems, and other
related matters. Each of these may affect the
learners’ participation and positive response in the
learning process.
 Attitude or behavior barriers can be in the form
of shyness, apathy, resistance to change, old age
syndrome, resistance to learn, or “know-it-all”
attitude. Some learners may have been forced to
attend the training that they do not see the importance
at all. Failure to see the reason for training and lack of
motivation and confidence on the part of the learner
may likewise bring forth barriers to learning.
(3) Environmental Barriers
- can be in the form of noise, poor ventilation,
limited space or interruptions during the conduct of
training. Restricted or limited time for certain
sessions also creates barriers.
(4) Limited Learning Attention Span
-Limitation varies from one learner to another
hence, it is important to note that no matter how
interesting the material is, how well motivated the
learner is, and how skilled the trainer is, exhausting
the attention span of learners is not advisable.
It is generally believed that in a traditional
presentation, the attention starts to fade after about
20 minutes. This attention span continues to diminish
until it becomes nil, particularly if the presentation
goes beyond 30 to 40 minutes. Breaks within session
are suggested to counteract this act. Alternative
approach can also be used to enhance the learner’s
attention.
(5) Barriers Attributable to the Trainer
-can be inappropriate content being delivered
simply because the topic is a favorite of the trainer or
wrong technique or approach in the delivery of the
subject matter. Other barriers attributed to the trainer
are insufficient knowledge on the subject matter; lack of
training on conducting or delivering training; regional
accents; overt manners; and dangling acts.
Trainer’s prejudices may also adversely affect the
learning. These include trainer’s view on race, sex,
age, and disability; judgmental views on learners;
disregarding or rejecting the learner’s views because
they do not fit in with trainer’s views; over-direction
from the trainer’s viewpoint; and unwillingness to
accept and listen to the learner’s rights and voice in
the learning process.