SOCIOLOGY

(Midterm Exam Questions)

What is sociology?
Sociology is the scientific study of
human groups and social behavior.
Sociologists focus primarily on human
interactions, including how social
relationships influence people’s
attitudes and how societies form and
change.
How Wright Mills determine
sociological imagination?
In 1959, sociologist C. Wright
Mills defined sociological
imagination as the ability to see the
impact of social forces on individuals’
private and public lives.
Sociological imagination, then, plays
a central role in the sociological
perspective.
What are characteristics of
sociological imagination in
exploration of society
Sociologists look at events from a holistic,
or multidimensional, perspective. Using
sociological imagination, they examine
both personal and social forces when
explaining any phenomenon.
 What is contribution of Auguste
Comte for foundation of sociology?
The French philosopher Auguste Comte
(1798–1857)—often called the “father of
sociology”—first used the term “sociology” in
1838 to refer to the scientific study of society.
He believed that all societies develop and
progress through the following stages:
religious, metaphysical, and scientific. Comte
argued that society needs scientific
knowledge based on facts and evidence to
solve its problems—not speculation and
superstition, which characterize the religious
and metaphysical stages of social
Comte viewed the science of sociology
as consisting of two branches:
dynamics, or the study of the
processes by which societies change;
and statics, or the study of the
processes by which societies endure.
He also envisioned sociologists as
eventually developing a base of
scientific social knowledge that would
guide society into positive directions.
What is contribution of Herbert
Spenser for foundation and
development of sociology?
The 19th-century Englishman Herbert Spencer
(1820–1903) compared society to a living
organism with interdependent parts. Change
in one part of society causes change in the
other parts, so that every part contributes to
the stability and survival of society as a whole.
If one part of society malfunctions, the other
parts must adjust to the crisis and contribute
even more to preserve society. Family,
education, government, industry, and religion
comprise just a few of the parts of the
“organism” of society.
What is contribution of Karl Marx for
foundation and development of
sociology?
Not everyone has shared Spencer’s vision of
societal harmony and stability. Chief among
those who disagreed was the German political
philosopher and economist Karl Marx (1818–
1883), who observed society’s exploitation of
the poor by the rich and powerful. Marx
argued that Spencer’s healthy societal
“organism” was a falsehood.
Rather than interdependence and stability,
Marx claimed that social conflict, especially
class conflict, and competition mark all
societies.
The class of capitalists that Marx called the
bourgeoisie particularly enraged him. Members of
the bourgeoisie own the means of production
and exploit the class of laborers, called the
proletariat, who do not own the means of
production. Marx believed that the very natures of
the bourgeoisie and the proletariat inescapably lock
the two classes in conflict. But he then took his ideas
of class conflict one step further: He predicted that
the laborers are not selectively “unfit,” but are
destined to overthrow the capitalists. Such a class
revolution would establish a “class-free” society in
which all people work according to their abilities and
receive according to their needs.
Unlike Spencer, Marx believed that
economics, not natural selection, determines
the differences between the bourgeoisie and
the proletariat. He further claimed that a
society’s economic system decides peoples’
norms, values, mores, and religious beliefs, as
well as the nature of the society’s political,
governmental, and educational systems.
Also unlike Spencer, Marx urged people to
take an active role in changing society rather
than simply trusting it to evolve positively
on its own.
What is contribution of Emile
Durkheim for foundation and
development of sociology?
Despite their differences, Marx, Spencer, and
Comte all acknowledged the importance of
using science to study society, although none
actually used scientific methods. Not until
Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) did a person
systematically apply scientific methods to
sociology as a discipline. A French philosopher
and sociologist, Durkheim stressed the
importance of studying social facts, or
patterns of behavior characteristic of a
particular group.
The phenomenon of suicide
especially interested Durkheim. But
he did not limit his ideas on the topic
to mere speculation. Durkheim
formulated his conclusions about the
causes of suicide based on the
analysis of large amounts of statistical
data collected from various European
countries.
What is contribution of Max Weber
for foundation and development of
sociology?
The German sociologist Max Weber (1864–
1920) disagreed with the “objective evidence
only” position of Durkheim. He argued that
sociologists must also consider people’s
interpretations of events—not just the events
themselves. Weber believed that individuals’
behaviors cannot exist apart from their
interpretations of the meaning of their own
behaviors, and that people tend to act
according to these interpretations.
Because of the ties between objective
behavior and subjective interpretation, Weber
believed that sociologists must inquire into
people’s thoughts, feelings, and perceptions
regarding their own behaviors. Weber
recommended that sociologists adopt his
method of Verstehen (vûrst e hen), or
empathetic understanding. Verstehen allows
sociologists to mentally put themselves into
“the other person’s shoes” and thus obtain an
“interpretive understanding” of the meanings
of individuals’ behaviors.
 What are differences between
microsociology and macrosociology?
Sociologists analyze social phenomena
at different levels and from different
perspectives. From concrete
interpretations to sweeping
generalizations of society and social
behavior, sociologists study everything
from specific events (the micro level of
analysis of small social patterns) to the
“big picture” (the macro level of
analysis of large social patterns).
Which are main theoretical
perspectives in sociology?
Sociologists today employ three
primary theoretical perspectives:
- the symbolic interactionist
perspective,
- the functionalist perspective, and
- the conflict perspective.
In short explain key characteristics of
symbolic interactionism
The symbolic interactionist perspective, also
known as symbolic interactionism, directs
sociologists to consider the symbols and details of
everyday life, what these symbols mean, and how
people interact with each other. Although symbolic
interactionism traces its origins to Max Weber’s
assertion that individuals act according to
their interpretation of the meaning of their world,
the American philosopher George H. Mead (1863–
1931) introduced this perspective to American
sociology in the 1920s.
According to the symbolic interactionist
perspective, people attach meanings to
symbols, and then they act according to their
subjective interpretation of these symbols.
Verbal conversations, in which spoken
words serve as the predominant symbols,
make this subjective interpretation especially
evident. The words have a certain meaning for
the “sender,” and, during effective
communication, they hopefully have the same
meaning for the “receiver.”
Conversation is an interaction of symbols between
individuals who constantly interpret the world
around them. Of course, anything can serve as a
symbol as long as it refers to something beyond
itself. Written music serves as an example. The
black dots and lines become more than mere marks
on the page; they refer to notes organized in such a
way as to make musical sense. Thus, symbolic
interactionists give serious thought to how people
act, and then seek to determine what meanings
individuals assign to their own actions and symbols,
as well as to those of others.
In short explain key characteristics of
functionalism
According to the functionalist perspective,
also called functionalism, each aspect of
society is interdependent and contributes to
society’s functioning as a whole. The
government, or state, provides education for
the children of the family, which in turn pays
taxes on which the state depends to keep
itself running. That is, the family is dependent
upon the school to help children grow up to
have good jobs so that they can raise and
support their own families.
In the process, the children become law-
abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn
support the state. If all goes well, the parts of
society produce order, stability, and
productivity. If all does not go well, the parts
of society then must adapt to recapture a new
order, stability, and productivity.
For example, during a financial recession with
its high rates of unemployment and inflation,
social programs are trimmed or cut. Schools
offer fewer programs. Families tighten their
budgets. And a new social order, stability, and
In the process, the children become law-
abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn
support the state. If all goes well, the parts of
society produce order, stability, and
productivity. If all does not go well, the parts
of society then must adapt to recapture a new
order, stability, and productivity.
For example, during a financial recession with
its high rates of unemployment and inflation,
social programs are trimmed or cut. Schools
offer fewer programs. Families tighten their
budgets. And a new social order, stability, and
 Explain differences between
mechanical solidarity and organic
solidarity
- Mechanical solidarity is a form of
social cohesion that arises when
people in a society maintain similar
values and beliefs and engage in
similar types of work. Mechanical
solidarity most commonly occurs in
traditional, simple societies such as
those in which everyone herds cattle
or farms. Amish society exemplifies
mechanical solidarity.
- In contrast, organic solidarity is a
form of social cohesion that arises
when the people in a society are
interdependent, but hold to varying
values and beliefs and engage in
varying types of work. Organic
solidarity most commonly occurs in
industrialized, complex societies such
those in large American cities like
New York in the 2000s.
What are critics on functionalism as
sociological theory?
Functionalism has received criticism for neglecting
the negative functions of an event such as divorce.
Critics also claim that the perspective justifies the
status quo and complacency on the part of society’s
members. Functionalism does not encourage
people to take an active role in changing their social
environment, even when such change may benefit
them. Instead, functionalism sees active social
change as undesirable because the various parts of
society will compensate naturally for any problems
that may arise.
In short explain key characteristics of
conflict theory
The conflict perspective, which originated
primarily out of Karl Marx’s writings on
class struggles, presents society in a
different light than do the functionalist
and symbolic interactionist perspectives.
While these latter perspectives focus on
the positive aspects of society that
contribute to its stability, the conflict
perspective focuses on the negative,
conflicted, and ever-changing nature of
society.
Unlike functionalists who defend the status
quo, avoid social change, and believe people
cooperate to effect social order, conflict
theorists challenge the status quo, encourage
social change (even when this means social
revolution), and believe rich and powerful
people force social order on the poor and the
weak. Conflict theorists, for example, may
interpret an “elite” board of regents raising
tuition to pay for esoteric new programs that
raise the prestige of a local college as self-
serving rather than as beneficial for students.
Today, conflict theorists find social conflict
between any groups in which the potential for
inequality exists: racial, gender, religious,
political, economic, and so on. Conflict
theorists note that unequal groups usually
have conflicting values and agendas, causing
them to compete against one another.
This constant competition between groups
forms the basis for the ever-changing nature
of society.
What are critics on
conflict theory?
Critics of the conflict perspective
point to its overly negative view
of society. The theory ultimately
attributes humanitarian efforts,
altruism, democracy, civil rights, and
other positive aspects of society
to capitalistic designs to control the
masses, not to inherent interests
in preserving society and social order.
What is scientific method?
Method is planned and meaningful
activity in achieving of one goal.
Scientific method is way of exploring,
researching of subject of some
science.
What are characteristics of
scientific method?
An area of inquiry is a scientific
discipline if its investigators use the
scientific method, which is a
systematic approach to researching
questions and problems through
objective and accurate observation,
collection and analysis of data, direct
experimentation, and replication
(repeating) of these procedures.
Scientists affirm the importance
of gathering information carefully,
remaining unbiased when evaluating
information, observing phenomena,
conducting experiments, and
accurately recording procedures and
results. They are also skeptical about
their results, so they repeat their
work and have their findings
confirmed by other scientists.
 Which are phases of
sociological research?
Phases of sociological research:

1. Identification of problem
2. Collecting of data
3. Creation of hypotheses
4. Testing of hypotheses
5. Analyses of results
6. Interpretation of results
7. Report from research
What are differences between
qualitative and quantitative
sociological researches?
In quantitative research, information
collected from respondents (for example, a
respondent’s college ranking) is converted into
numbers (for example, a junior may equal
three and a senior four).
In qualitative research, information collected
from respondents takes the form of verbal
descriptions or direct observations of events.
Although verbal descriptions and observations
are useful, many scientists prefer quantitative
data for purposes of analysis.
According to Durkheim book, “Rules
of sociological method” what are
most important characteristics of
sociological method?
Durkheim book, “Rules of sociological
method”:
1. Observation of social appearance as a
social facts: part of natural environment,
impost to individuals
2. social facts has consequence for
individuals
3. social facts are part of objective reality
4. rejection of laymen and common sense
knowledge about social facts
 According to Max Weber what are
the most important characteristics of
sociological methodology?
Weber s methodology
difference between methods used in natural sciences
and sociology because of difference in subject which
they investigate

limitations of goals in social researches

understanding instead explanations

subjective understanding of social action

For example one suicide we can't investigated it just

as social appearance (social fact) but we must to
investigate motives of social actors
According to Max Weber which are
most appropriate methods for
research of social reality?
Rules of Webers methods:

1. Typology – ideal type

2. Distinction among causes and
consequences
3. Causes of social appearances should
be find in previous social appearances
4. Investigation of social and historical
development of social appearances
5. Comparative analyses
In short, explain the most popular
social research models?
Three popular social research designs
(models) are:
- Cross-sectional, in which scientists study a
number of individuals of different ages who
have the same trait or characteristic of
interest at a single time
- Longitudinal, in which scientists study the
same individuals or society repeatedly over a
specified period of time
- Cross-sequential, in which scientists test
individuals in a cross-sectional sample more
than once over a specified period of time
Explain Observation as sociological
research method
Observation is a method of compiling data for
scientific purposes by sensory perceptions of a
particular phenomenon subject to scientific
research. A key to observation is the researcher's
awareness of the processes that he observes.
Observation has a long history in sociological
research and almost every research begins with
observation of the subject of research. Observation
is usually used in the qualitative methodology.
According to the number of observed events,
observation can be individual, group and
mass. According to time, observation can be
a one-time and longitudinal observation.
According to the site of observation, it can be
laboratory under strictly controlled
conditions or natural observation of
spontaneous events. According to the role of
the researcher, observation can be
observation with participation and
observation without participation.
The positive aspects of the observation are
that the researcher is immediately
acquainted with the subject being
investigated. He has the opportunity to
understand the totality of the event or the
phenomenon that he explores. Observation
also offers the possibility to monitor the
knowledge that has been gained by using
other methods of research. The negative side
of the observation is that it can sometimes
rely on the subjective impression of the
researcher.
The weaknesses of the observation are that only actual
events can be observed. It is not possible to systematically
observe events that spontaneously occur. There are
difficulties to observe events that last for a long time or
which appear simultaneously in multiple places so that
the researcher can hardly obtain systematic experiential
knowledge. Also, during the observation, there is a danger
of subjectivity and selectivity of the knowledge acquired
by the researcher. The next danger that obscures the
observation is the change in the behavior of social actors if
they are informed that they are subject to observation,
which can ultimately result in wrong observation results.
Determine case study as sociological
research method
In case study research, an investigator
studies an individual or small group of
individuals with an unusual condition or
situation. Case studies are typically
clinical in scope. The investigator (often a
clinical sociologist) sometimes uses self-
report measures to acquire quantifiable
data on the subject. A comprehensive
case study, including a long-term follow-
up, can last months or years.
Determine surveys as sociological
research method
Survey research involves interviewing
or administering questionnaires, or
written surveys, to large numbers of
people. The investigator analyzes the
data obtained from surveys to learn
about similarities, differences, and
trends. He or she then makes
predictions about the
population being studied.
What is secondary analysis?
Some sociologists conduct research by using
data that other social scientists have already
collected. The use of publicly accessible
information is known as secondary analysis,
and is most common in situations in which
collecting new data is impractical or
unnecessary. Sociologists may obtain
statistical data for analysis from businesses,
academic institutions, and governmental
agencies, to name only a few sources. Or
they may use historical or library information
to generate their hypotheses.
Which are constitutive elements of
culture?
Culture consists of the beliefs,
behaviors, objects, and other
characteristics common to the
members of a particular group or
society.
Which social aspects are included in
culture?
Thus, culture includes many societal
aspects: language, customs, values,
norms, mores, rules, tools, technologies,
products, organizations, and institutions.
This latter term institution refers to
clusters of rules and cultural meanings
associated with specific social activities.
Common institutions are the family,
education, religion, work, and health
care.
Which are social functions of culture?
Through culture, people and groups
define themselves, conform to
society’s shared values, and
contribute to society.
What is high culture?
Popularly speaking, being cultured means
being well-educated, knowledgeable of the
arts, stylish, and well-mannered. High culture
—generally pursued by the upper class—
refers to classical music, theater, fine arts, and
other sophisticated pursuits. Members of the
upper class can pursue high art because they
have cultural capital,
which means the professional credentials,
education, knowledge, and verbal and social
skills necessary to attain the “property, power,
and prestige” to “get ahead” socially.
What is low (popular) culture?
Low culture, or popular culture—
generally pursued by the working and
middle classes—refers to sports,
movies, television sitcoms and soaps,
and rock music.
What is difference between material
and non material culture?
Sociologists describe two interrelated
aspects of human culture: the
physical objects of the culture and
the ideas associated with these
objects.
Which are most important element of
non material culture?
Four of the most important of these
are symbols, language, values, and
norms.
What are symbols?
To the human mind, symbols are
cultural representations of reality.
Every culture has its own set of
symbols associated with different
experiences and perceptions. Thus, as
a representation, a symbol’s meaning
is neither instinctive nor automatic.
The culture’s members
must interpret and over time
reinterpret the symbol.
How Sapir and Whorf
understand language?
Perhaps the most powerful of all human
symbols is language—a system of verbal and
sometimes written representations that are
culturally specific and convey meaning about
the world. In the 1930s, Edward Sapir and
Benjamin Lee Whorf proposed that languages
influence perceptions. While this Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis—also called the linguistic relativity
hypothesis —is controversial, it legitimately
suggests that a person will more likely perceive
differences when he or she possesses words or
concepts to describe the differences.
What are values?
A culture’s values are its ideas about
what is good, right, fair, and just.
Values ​represent a set of goals, ideas and
preferences that the individual, group, and society
aspire to achieve. These are ideas that are widely
socially accepted, and they refer to what is good,
what is bаd, what is just and what is unjust, what
is right and what is wrong. Values ​are most often
implemented through social norms and standards
of behavior. They give meaning to life and direct
the actions of individuals. Values ​are spiritual
creations that direct individuals toward certain
desirable goals and preferences. There is no
restriction on what could be regarded as a value in a
certain society.
 How sociologists
understand values?
Sociologists disagree, however, on
how to conceptualize values. Conflict
theory focuses on how values differ
between groups within a culture,
while functionalism focuses on the
shared values within a culture.
According to Robert Merton which
are most important values in
American society?
American sociologist Robert K.
Merton suggested that the most
important values in American society
are wealth, success, power, and
prestige.
What are norms?
Norms are the agreed-upon expectations
and rules by which a culture guides the
behavior of its members in any given
situation.
Norms are regulations that protect some social values.
Therefore norms are directly related to values. Thus,
human life as a value is protected in such a way that
social norms prescribe the highest possible penalties for
endangering human life. Norms are guidelines that
individuals follow in order to protect the values ​in their
mutual relationships. Accordingly, the norms are
guidelines for desirable behavior. They suggest how to
behave in a particular situation. They suggest what to do,
when, where and how, and what not to do. The implicit
meaning of norms is much wider. They allow us to predict
what the behavior of individuals in a particular social
context will be. On the basis of norms, expectations in
social interaction are built.
Norms are socially and historically conditioned.
Behavior based on social norms, which is
acceptable in one society, can be unacceptable in
another. In a similar way, what was considered
unacceptable social behavior over one period of
time, may be desirable social behavior in another
period. The social norms have two functions:
- They maintain a social order
- Integrate the social system
How many types of norms you know
and who they are?
Sociologists speak of at least four
types of norms: folkways, mores,
taboos, and laws.
What are folkways?
Folkways, sometimes known as
“conventions” or “customs,” are
standards of behavior that are
socially approved but not morally
significant. For example, belching
loudly after eating dinner at someone
else’s home breaks an American
folkway.
What are mores?
Mores are norms of morality.
Breaking mores, like attending church
or mosque in the nude, will offend
most people of a culture.
What are taboos?
Taboos are social norms about
activities that are absolutely forbids
in one culture, like incest in U.S.
culture.
What is laws?
laws are a formal body of rules
enacted by the state and backed by
the power of the state. Virtually all
taboos, like child abuse, are enacted
into law, although not all mores are.
For example, wearing a bikini to
church may be offensive, but it is not
against the law.
What are subcultures?
Smaller cultural groups that exist within but
differ in some way from the prevailing culture
interest sociologists. These groups are called
subcultures. Examples of some subcultures
include “heavy metal” music devotees, body-
piercing and tatoo enthusiasts, motorcycle
gang members, and Nazi skinheads. Members
of subcultures typically make use of
distinctive language, behaviors, and clothing,
even though they may still accept many of the
values of the dominant culture.
What are countercultures?
A counterculture comes about in
opposition to the norms and values
of the dominant culture. Members of
countercultures—such as hippies and
protest groups—are generally teenagers
and young adults, because youth is often
a time of identity crisis and
experimentation. In time many, but not
all, members of countercultures
eventually adopt the norms and values of
the dominant culture.
What is multiculturalism?
This perspective of multiculturalism respects
cultural variations rather than requiring that
the dominant culture assimilate the various
cultures. It holds that certain shared cultural
tenets are important to society as a whole,
but that some cultural differences are
important, too. For example, children in
schools today are being taught that the
United States is not the only culture in the
world, and that other viewpoints may have
something to offer Americans.
What is ethnocentrism?
Ethnocentrism involves judging other cultures
against the standards of one’s own culture.
Norms within a culture frequently translate
into what is considered “normal,” so that
people think their own way of doing things is
“natural.” These same people also judge other
people’s ways of doing things as “unnatural.”
In other words, they forget that what may be
considered normal in America is not
necessarily so in another part of the world.
What is nationalism?
A potentially problematic form of
ethnocentrism is nationalism, or an
overly enthusiastic identification with
a particular nation.
Nationalism often includes the notion
that a particular nation has a God-
given or historical claim to
superiority. Such nationalism, for
instance, was a special problem in
World War II Nazi Germany.
What is cultural relativism?
Sociologists strive to avoid ethnocentric
judgments. Instead, they generally embrace
cultural relativism, or the perspective that a
culture should be sociologically evaluated
according to its own standards, and not those
of any other culture. Thus, sociologists point
out that there really are no good or bad
cultures. And they are better able to
understand the standards of other cultures
because they do not assume their own is
somehow better.
What is socialization?
Socialization is the process whereby infants and
children develop into social beings. Among other
things, children develop a sense of self, memory,
language, and intellect. And in doing so, they learn
from their elders the attitudes, values, and proper
social behaviors of the culture into which they were
born. In other words, socialization connects
different generations to each other.
What is reverse socialization?
Reverse socialization is a process in which those
who are supposed to socialize new members of
society, from teachers become students. Namely,
socialization is a two-way process, and in a
modern, dynamic society in which technology,
knowledge and practices are rapidly changing,
sometimes in the process of socialization, it is not
only the children who learn from their parents, but
it is also the parents who learn a lot of things from
their own children.
Specify at least one example of
“unsocialized” child
One of the most commonly cited examples is the
Boy of Aveyron who emerged little more than a
“beast” from a forest in France in 1798.
“Unsocialized” children such as this boy typically
look more animal than human, prefer to remain
naked (at least at first upon being discovered), lack
human speech, have no sense of personal hygiene,
fail to recognize themselves in a mirror, show little
or no reasoning ability, and respond only partially
to attempts to help them change from “animal into
human.” Research shows that the state of these
children seems to suggest the important role that
learning plays in normal human development.
Who are most important agents of
socialization?
 Most important agents of
socialization: primary groups, peer
groups, and mass media.
 According to Piaget, which are key
processes for cognitive development
of Childs?
Piaget introduced several other
important concepts. According to
Piaget, cognitive development occurs
from two processes: adaptation
and equilibrium.
Adaptation involves the child’s changing to meet
situational demands. Adaptation involves two sub-
processes: assimilation and accommodation.
Accommodation is the application of previous
concepts to new concepts. Assimilation is the
altering of previous concepts in the face of new
information. Equilibrium is the search for “balance”
between self and the world, and involves the
matching of the child’s adaptive functioning to
situational demands. Equilibrium keeps the infant
moving along the developmental pathway, allowing
him or her to make increasingly effective
adaptations.
 According to Piaget which are key
stages in cognitive development of
childs?
Stage Age Characteristics of Stage

Sensorimotor 0-2 The child learns by doing: looking, touching, sucking.

The child also has a primitive understanding of
cause-and-effect relationships. Object permanence
appears around 9 months.

Preoperational 2-7 The child uses language and symbols, including letters
and numbers. Egocentrism is also evident.
Conservation marks the end of the preoperational
stage and the beginning of concrete operations.

Concrete Operations 7-11 The child demonstrates conservation, reversibility,

serial ordering, and a mature understanding of cause-
and effect relationships. Thinking at this stage is still
concrete.

Formal Operations 12+ The individual demonstrates abstract thinking,

including logic, deductive reasoning, comparison, and
classification.
How Melanie Klein explain infant
personality development
Theorists after Freud have offered additional
perspectives on infant personality development.
Perhaps the most important of these is Melanie
Klein’s object-relations theory. According to Klein,
the inner core of personality stems from the early
relationship with the mother. While Freud
speculated that the child’s fear of a powerful father
determines personality, Klein speculated that the
child’s need for a powerful mother plays a more
important role. In other words, the child’s
fundamental human drive is to be in relationship
with others, of whom the mother is usually the first.
Klein affirmed that infants bond to
objects rather than people,
because the infant cannot fully
understand what a person is. An
infant’s very limited perspective can
only process an evolving perception
of what a person is.
In object-relations theory, girls adjust better
psychosocially than boys. Girls become
extensions of the mother; they do not need to
separate. Boys, on the other hand, must
separate from the mother to become
independent. This contrasts with Freud’s
theory, in which boys develop a stronger
superego (conscious) than girls do.
 According to parenting techniques
that are employed explain differences
between parents
Different parents employ different parenting
techniques. Which parents choose to use
which techniques depends on cultural and
community
standards, the situation, and their children’s
behavior at the time. Parental control
involves the degree to which parents are
restrictive in their use of parenting
techniques, while parental warmth involves
the degree to which they are loving,
affectionate, and approving in their use of
these techniques.
- Authoritarian parents demonstrate high
parental control and low parental
warmth when parenting.
- Permissive parents demonstrate high
parental warmth and low parental
control when parenting.
- Indifferent parents demonstrate low
parental control and low warmth.
- Authoritative parents demonstrate
appropriate levels of both parental
control and warmth.