DATA DRIVEN

ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS
SESSION NO: 6
TOPIC: KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION TECHNIQUES
TECHNIQUES OF KNOWLEDGE
REPRESENTATION

• Three major techniques of Knowledge Representation

• Logical Representation
• Semantic Network Representation
• Frame Representation

2
LOGICAL REPRESENTATION

• Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with
propositions and has no ambiguity in representation.
• Logical representation can be categorized into mainly two logics:
• Propositional Logic
• First Order Logic

3
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

• Represent real world facts as logical propositions written as Well Formed Formula (Wffs).
• Simple to deal with.
• A decision procedure exists for it.
Facts Propositional logic
it is raining RAINING
it is sunny SUNNY
it is windy WINDY
if it is raining, then it is not sunny RAINING   SUNNY

4
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

• The propositional logic symbols and sentences

• If S is a sentence,  S is a sentence (negation) (S is true iff S is false )

• If S1 and S2 are sentences, S1  S2 is a sentence (conjunction) S1  S2 is true iff S1 is true and S2 is true
• If S1 and S2 are sentences, S1  S2 is a sentence (disjunction) S1  S2 is true iff S1 is true or S2 is true
• If S1 and S2 are sentences, S1  S2 is a sentence (implication) S1  S2 is true iff S1 is false or S2 is true
i.e, is false iff S1 is true and S2 is
false
• If S1 and S2 are sentences, S1  S2 is a sentence (bi-conditional) S1  S2 is true iff S1  S2 is true and S2  S1 is true

5
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

Name Equivalences
Identity p ∧ T ≡ p, p ∨ F ≡ p
Domination p ∨ T ≡ T, p ∧ F ≡ F
Idempotent p ∧ p ≡ p, p ∨ p ≡ p
Double Negation ¬(¬p) ≡ p
Commutative p∨q≡q∨p, p∧q≡q∧p

Associative (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r) , (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r)

Distributive p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r), p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)
De Morgan's Law ¬(p ∧ q)≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q, ¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q
Absorption p ∨ (p ∧ q)≡p, p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p
Negation p ∨ ¬p ≡ T, p ∧ ¬p ≡ F

6
LIMITATIONS OF PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

• If you want to represent complicated sentences or natural language statements, PL is not

sufficient.
• We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional logic. Example:
• All the girls are intelligent.
• Some apples are sweet.

• There is very limited expressive power in PL, so we use FOL instead

• Example:

All men are mortal MORTALMAN

• fails to capture the relation ship between individual being a man and that individual being a mortal.

7
FIRST ORDER LOGIC

• First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence. It is an extension to

propositional logic.

• FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a concise way.

• First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic. First-order logic is a powerful
language that develops information about the objects in a more easy way and can also express the relationship
between those objects.

• First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world contains facts like propositional
logic but also assumes the following things in the world:
• Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits, wumpus, ......
• Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or n-any relation such as: the sister
of, brother of, has color, comes between
• Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......

8
FIRST ORDER LOGIC

• Use of predicate logic as a way of representing knowledge

1.Marcus was a man man(Marcus)
2.Marcus was a pompeian Pompeian(Marcus)
3.all Pompeians were Romans x: Pompeian(x)  Roman(x)
4.Casear was a ruler ruler(Casear)
5.All Romans are either loyal to Caesar or hated him
x: roman(x)  loyalto(x,Caesar)  hate(x,Caesar)

6.Everyone is loyal to someone

x: y: loyalto(x,y)

7.people only try to assassinate rulers they are not loyal to

x: y: person(x) ^ ruler(y) ^ tryassassinate(x,y)  loyalto(x,y)

8.Marcus tried to assassinate Caesar

tryassassinate(Marcus,Caesar)
9
FIRST ORDER LOGIC

Was Marcus loyal to Caesar?

Using 7 and 8 we are able to prove
Marcus was not loyal to Caesar

goal ?  loyalto(Marcus,Caesar)

To prove the goal…(Reasoning Backward)

use the rules of inference to transform it until there are no unsatisfied goals remaining.

May require search of AND-OR graph when there are alternative ways of satisfying
individual goals.
10
 loyalto(Marcus,Caesar)
(7,substitution)
person(Marcus) ^
ruler(Caesar) ^
tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)
(4)
person(Marcus) ^
tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)
(8)
person(Marcus) Fails
since there is no
way to satisfy the goal
Add the representation of another fact...
9. All men are people. x: man(x)  Person(x)

12
 loyalto(Marcus,Caesar)
(7,substitution)
person(Marcus) ^
ruler(Caesar) ^
tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)
(4)
person(Marcus) ^
tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)
(8)
person(Marcus)
(9)
man(Marcus)
success
SEMANTIC NETWORK REPRESENTATION

• Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge

representation. In Semantic networks, we can represent our knowledge in
the form of graphical networks. This network consists of nodes
representing objects and arcs which describe the relationship between
those objects
• This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:
• IS-A relation (Inheritance)
• Kind-of-relation

14
SEMANTIC NETWORK REPRESENTATION

Mamma
• Statements: Cat
l
Is-a
• Rubi is a cat. Is-a

• Rubi is a mammal Rubi

Animal
Is-colored Is-owned
• Rubi is owned by Jack.
• Rubi is white colored. White Jack

• All Mammals are animal.

15
ADVANTAGES OF SEMANTIC NETWORK
REPRESENTATION
• Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.
• Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.
• These networks are simple and easily understandable.

16
LIMITATION OF SEMANTIC NETWORK REPRESENTATION

• Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse the
complete network tree to answer some questions
• Semantic networks try to model human-like memory to store the information, but in
practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic networks.

17
FRAME REPRESENTATION

• A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its values
to describe an entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure which divides
knowledge into substructures by representing stereotypes situations. It consists of a
collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be of any type and sizes. Slots have
names and values which are called facets.
• The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. Facets are features of frames which
enable us to put constraints on the frames.
• A frame is also known as slot-filter knowledge representation in artificial intelligence.

18
FRAME REPRESENTATION

• Example:
Let's take an example of a frame for a book

Slots Filters
Title Artificial Intelligence
Genre Computer Science
Author Peter Norvig
Edition Third Edition
Year 1996
Page 1152

19
ADVANTAGES OF FRAME REPRESENTATION

• The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by grouping the
related data.
• The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many applications in AI.
• It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.
• It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.

20
LIMITATION OF FRAME REPRESENTATION

• In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily processed.

• Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame representation.
• Frame representation has a much generalized approach.

21
SUMMARY

 This session discuss about the Three major techniques of Knowledge Representation
• Logical Representation
• Semantic Network Representation
• Frame Representation

22
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Knowledge and reasoning also play a crucial role in dealing with __________________ environment.

(a) Completely Observable

(b) Partially Observable
(c) Neither Completely nor Partially Observable
(d) Only Completely and Partially Observable

2. A knowledge-based agent can combine general knowledge with current percepts to infer hidden aspects
of the current state prior to selecting actions.

(a) True
(b) False
 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Illustrate various techniques of Knowledge Representation.

2. Discuss the semantic network with an example

24
REFERENCE

• Reference Books:

• 1. Russel and Norvig, ‘Artificial Intelligence’, third edition, Pearson Education, PHI, (2015)
• 2. Elaine Rich & Kevin Knight, ‘Artificial Intelligence’, 3nd Edition, Tata Mc Graw Hill Edition, Reprint( 2008)

• Sites and Web links:

1. https://www.virtusa.com/digital-themes/heuristic-search-techniques

2. https://towardsdatascience.com/a-star-a-search-algorithm-eb495fb156bb

25