BIOLOGICAL

CONTROL
 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
• Employs natural enemies of pest or pathogens to eradicate or control
their population.
• A manifestation of the association of different interdependent species in
nature.
• The use of organism to reduce the population density of another
organism.
• Is nature’s own way to keep numbers of pest organism at low levels.
• This refers to the use of natural enemies to limit pest populations at
acceptable level. Biological control is often used in combination with
other control measures.
 The different types of biological control
agents or natural enemies are:
• Parasitoids- biological control agents that require only one host
to complete it’s life cycle. Specialized insects that lay their eggs
in, on or near the insect host of another species. (Ex.
Trichogramma, Telenomus and Tetrastichus against rice stem
borer eggs, Trathala against leucinodes orbonalis larvae.
• Predators- biological control agents that consume several hosts
to complete their life cycle. Orgamisms that prey on others. Ex.
Spiders, lady beetles, lacewings, predatory mites.
• Insect pathogen- microorganisms that cause disease on other
organisms by ingestion or contact. Ex. Bacillus
thuringiensis(Bt), nuclear poly-hedrosis virus (NPV),
Beauveria, Metarrhizium.
• Plant extracts or exudates- repel other organisms (antibiosis)-
marigold, asparagus, and and Crotolia plants against root-knot
nematodes.
• Microbial antagonists- microorganisms that inhibit or
overcome the growth of pathogen infecting the plant. Ex.
Trichoderma against Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Fusarium.
 Concept of Biological Control
• organisms that occurs “for free” the evolution of first
ecosystem some 500 million years ago, can be found in all
ecosystems and take place without human interventions.
• The basic premise for most biological control activities is
the equilibrium which exists between plant and animal
populations on their undisturbed native habitats.
• Modern pest management will strongly depend on
biological control, because it is the most suitable, cheapest
and environmentally safest pest management method.
• Chinese were the first to use natural enemies to control
insect pests. Nests of the ant O. smaragdina were used to
control of citrus insects pest such as T. papillosa
(Lepidoptera).
• In 1200 A.D., ladybird beetles were recognized in control
of aphids and scale insects.
 TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
1. CLASSICAL BIOCON- use of natural enemies in inoculative
releases: usually, both the pest and the natural enemy are exotic
origin. Ex. The bacterium Paenibacillus popilliae established in the
US for the control of Japanese beetle Popillia japonica.
2. AUGMENTATIVE BIOCON- use of natural enemies in
inundative and seasonal inoculative release.
• Inoculation- single treatmenr that provides season-long control, as in
fungus Lecanillium longisporum ised against Myszus persicae aphids in
greenhouse.
• Inundation- entomopathogens such as Bacillus thurengensis used as
microbial insecticides.
3. CONSERVATION BIOCON- the environment is
manipulated or modified to improve the effectiveness of
already established natural enemies. Ex. Raising the
humidity to enhance germination spore viability of fungi.
 Use of Microbial Antagonists

• Microorganisms include bacteria, viruses and small eukaryotes

(e.g., protists, fungi and nematodes). Some are insect pathogens,
usually killing their host, and of these many are host-specific to
particular insects.
• Infection is from spores, viral particles, or organisms that persist
in the insect’s environment, often in the soil.
• Microorganisms then multiply within the living insects in the
case of nematodes, juveniles.
• Microorganisms that cause diseases in natural or cultured insect
populations can be used as biological control agents in the same
way as other natural enemies.
 Advantages of Biological Control
1. SELF-PERPETUATION
• in the contrast to chemical control, which only temporarily reduces
the pest population and must be repeatedly applied, most successful
biological control involves the introduction of new natural control
factors into the environment, thus permanent reducing the pest
population to new equilibrium level.
• -once the biological control agents are established, they continue to
control the pest indefinitely without additional efforts.
2. LACK OF RESISTANCE
• - a certain pest does not develop resistance to biological
control as compared to chemical control, which develop
insect strains resistant to insecticides.
3. LACK OF ADVERSE SIDE EFFECTS
• - biological control agents generally are quite specific,
attacking one or several phytophagous pest species without
disturbing beneficial forms.
Advantages of Biological Control for Farmers and Consumers

1. Strongly reduced exposure of grower and spray personnel to

toxic pesticides.
2. Lack of residues on market product.
3. Lack of toxic effects on (young) plants, and no premature
abortion of flowers and fruits. As a result, often yield increases
are obtained when biological control is applied.
4. Release of natural enemies take less time and much more
pleasant than applying chemicals in humid and warm
greenhouses.
5. Release of natural enemies usually occurs shortly after
planting period when the grower has sufficient time to check
for successful development of natural enemies; thereafter the
system is reliable for months with only occasional checks;
chemical control requires continuous attention.
6. With biological control, there is no safety period between
application and harvesting the crop, so harvesting can be done
at any moment which is particularly important with strongly
fluctuating market prices; with chemical control, one has to
wait several days before harvesting is allowed again.
7. Biological control is permanent: once a good natural enemy-
always a good natural enemy.
8. Biological control is appreciated by the general public. This
may result in either a quicker sale of crops or both.
9. Low risk of food, water and environmental pollution.
10.Contribution to sustainable food production.
11. Contribution to protection or even improvement of
biodiversity.
MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL
CONTROL
MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL CONTROL

• Devices, machines, and other methods used to control

pests or alter their environment are called mechanical
or physical controls.
• Traps, screens, barriers, fences, nets, radiation, and
electricity sometimes can be used to prevent the spread of
pests into an area.
• Lights, heat, and refrigeration can alter the environment
enough to suppress or eradicate some pest populations.
• Altering the amount of water, including humidity, can
control some pests, especially insects and disease agents.
• Destruction of the pest by mechanical means such as
burning, trapping, protective screens and barriers or use of
temperature and humidity is often useful.
1. HANDPICKING: When the infestation is low, the pest is
conspicuous and labor is cheap, the pest stages can be destroyed
by mechanical means. Eggs of grasshoppers can be destroyed by
hand. Alfalfa aphids can be killed by using chain drags on plants
less than 10 inches long. Locust nymphs which are congregating
can be beaten by sticks and brooms. European corn borer in the
stalk can be killed by running the corn stalks through the stalk
shredder. Handpicking of sugarcane borer eggs, cabbage butterfly
eggs, sawfly larvae on mustard, Papilio larvae from citrus plants
and stages of Epilachna beetle is very effective, especially in
small areas
2. BURNING: Controlled burning is sometimes
recommended to control certain pests. Weedy fallows
harboring European corn borers are burnt to destroy
overwintering pest stages. To eradicate the pink
bollworm dried cotton stalks are piled and dried. Trash
and garbage, weeds etc. are collected and burnt to destroy
pest stages. Flamethrowers are used to burn locust
hoppers and adults that are congregating and marching.
3. TRAPPING: Trapping is popular method to lure insects
to bait, light etc. to kill them. Traps usually fail to give
adequate crop protection but prove useful to know
population build up and are convenient to collect insect
samples. Many trap designs have been developed room time
to time to suit different insect species. Hopper-dozers were
formerly used to collect grasshoppers. In these the insects
after hitting the back of the machine fall to the bottom and
then through a narrow opening collect into a box.
• Yellow-pan traps containing water and few drops of
oil were proved useful in killing hopper adults on
paddy, sugarcane and wheat crops.
• Sticky traps are boards of yellow color smeared with
sticky substance, which trap and kill the flying insects
that are attracted to and try to rest on it.
• Pitfall traps are pan-like containers bearing insecticide
and embedded below the ground level. Crawling and fast-
running insects often fall into them and die.
• Light traps attract night-flying insects, which fall into a
container having insecticide, water or oil, or hit an electric
grid. Light source emitting UV light is most attractive to
insects.
• Pheromoe traps are particularly effective against the
lepidopterous pests. Females release specific pheromone to
which males are attracted from considerable distance.
4. BARRIERS: In certain instances, barriers may prevent
insects from infesting the crop. Cloth screens over seedbeds
protect the younger plants from insects, like flea beetles,
hoppers, armyworms etc. Metal collars around young plants
protect them from cutworms. Trench barriers are used to stop
chinch bugs, armyworms, locusts etc. Metal or concrete
barriers are used against termites. Barrier spraying of residual
insecticides has become more popular against termites, locusts
and several other insects. Sticky bands applied around mango
tree-trunks during December-January prevent the upward
movement of mango mealy bugs, which upon hatching begin
to crawl up the trunk to reach the leaves.
• 5. TEMPERATURE CONTROL: Temperature extremes
are fatal to insects. This method is used against stored grain
pests. Low temperatures that are enough to dormancy can
prevent damage. Low temperatures are utilized for the control
of insects in flourmills and warehouses. Exposure to subzero
temperature for 24 hours is lethal to most of the insects.
• 6. DRYING: Insects infesting stored grains require certain
amount of moisture to develop. Neither the rice weevils nor
the granary weevils can survive moisture contents as low as
8.0%. Drying the grains either in the sun or by heat blowers
reduces infestation of majority of stored grain insects.
• 7. RADIATION: Gamma radiation kills all stages of the
pests in storage conditions. This is a common method
employed to kill insect stages during export or imports of
huge quantities of grains, fruits and vegetables.
• 8. ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS: Moths are often
sensitive to bats’ ultrasonic signals and quickly escape
from the area. Imitation of the bat’s echolocation system
helps in scaring away the lepidopterous insect pests from
the area.
CULTURAL CONTROL
 CULTURAL CONTROL

• Cultural practices sometimes are used to reduce the numbers

of pests that are attacking cultivated plants.
• These practices alter the environment, the condition of
suppress an infestation.
• They disrupt the normal relationship between the pest and
the host plant and make the pest less likely to survive, grow,
or reproduce.
 Common cultural practices include:
• Rotating crops
• Cultivating the soil
• Varying time of planting or harvesting
• Planting trap crops
• Adjusting row width
• Pruning and thinning
• Fertilizing cultivated plants
 SANITATION
• Sanitation practices help to prevent and suppress some pests
by removing the pests of their sources of foods and shelter.
• Urban and industrial pests can be reduced by improving
cleanliness, eliminating pest harbourage, and increasing the
frequency of garbage pick up
• Management of pests attacking domestic animals is enhanced
by good manure management.
• Carryover of agricultural rests from one planting to next can
be reduced by moving crop residues.
 Other forms of sanitation that help prevent
pest spread include:
• Using of pest free seeds or transplants.
• Decontaminating equipment, animals and other
possible carriers before allowing them to enter a pest-
free area or leaving an infested area.
• Proper design of food handling areas can reduce access
and shelter for many pests.
Genetic Manipulation of Crops – Host
Plant Resistance
Concept of Host Plant Resistance (HPR)

• Those characteristics that enable a plant to avoid, to

tolerate or to recover from attacks of insects under
conditions what would cause greater injury to other
plants of the same species.
• Those heritable characteristics possessed by the plant
which influence the ultimate degree of damage done by
the insect.
• The relation to crop production, HPR represents the
inherent ability of crop plants to restrict, retard or
overcome pest infestations and thereby to improve yield
and/or quality of the harvestable product.
• Some plants, animals and structures resists pests better
than others. Some varieties of plants, wood, and animals
are resistant to certain pests. Use of resistant types, when
available, helps keep pest population below harmful
levels by making conditions less favourable for pests.
 Host resistance work in three ways:
ANTIBIOSIS
-chemicals in the hosts repel the pest or prevent the pest from
completing its life cycle. Traits reducing the survival, development or
reproduction of pest insects utilizing the plant.
Antibiosis may be due to:
- presence of toxic substances
- absence of sufficient amount of essential nutrients
- nutrient imbalance/ improper utilization of nutrients.
2. TOLERANCE
Traits resulting in the plant sustaining reduced damage
compared to susceptible plants infested at same pest
density.
Ability to grow yield despite pest attack
It is generally attributed to plant vigour, re-growth of
damage tissue, to produce additional branches,
compensation by growth of neighbouring plants.
The host is more vigorous or tolerant than other varieties
and thus less likely to be seriously damaged by pest
attacks.
3 .ANTIXENOSIS
The host has the physical characteristics that make it more
difficult to attack.
Describes the inability of a plant to serve a host to an insect
herbivore.
The basis of this resistance mechanism can be
morphological.
Traits reducing insect oviposition or colonization of the
plant.
 TYPES OF RESISTANCE

I.Ecological resistance or Pseudo resistance

• Apparent resistance resulting from transitory characters
in potentially susceptible host plants due to
environmental conditions.
 Classified into 3 categories
1. Host evasion- host may pass through the most susceptible
stage quickly or at a time when insects are less or evade injury
by early maturing. This pertains to the whole population of host
plant.
2. Induced resistance- increase in resistance temporarily as a
result of some changed conditions of plants or environment
such as change in the amounts of water or nutrient status of the
soil.
3. Escape- abundance of infestation or injury to host plant due to
transitory process like incomplete infestation. This pertains to
II.Genetic Resistance
a. Based on number of genes
• -Monogenic resistance: Controlled by single gene
• -Easy to incorporate into plant breeding
• -Easy to break also
• -Oligogenic resistance: Controlled by few genes
• -Polugenic: Controlled by many genes
• - Major gene resistance: Controlled by one or few major genes (vertical
resistance)
• -Minor gene resistance: Controlled by many minor genes. The cumulative
effect of minor genes is called adult resistance or field resistance. Also
called horizontal resistance.
b. Based on biotype reaction
• -Vertical resistance: Effective against specific biotypes
(specific resistance)
• -Horizontal resistance: Effective against all the known biotypes
(Non specific resistance)
c. Based on population/ Line concept
• -Pureline resistance: Exhibited by lines which are
phenotypically and genetically similar.
• -Multiline resistance: Exhibited by lines which are
phenotypically similar but genotypically dissimilar.
d. Miscellaneous Category
• -Crop resistance: Variety with resistance incorporates
against primary pest, confers resistance to another insect.
• -Multiline resistance: Resistance incorporated in a variety
against different environmental stresses like insects,
diseases, nematodes, heat, drought, cold, etc.
e. Based on Evolutionary Concept
• -Sympatric resistance: Acquired by co-evolution of plant
and insect (gene for gene). Governed by major genes.
• Sympatric- refers to populations or species that inhabit, at
least in part, the same geographic region.
• -Allopathic resistance: Not by co-evolution of plant and
insect. Governed by many genes.
• Allopatric- refers to populations or species that inhabit
separate geographic regions.
HPR IN IPM
• -HPR is a very important component of IPM
• -Selection and growing of resistant variety minimise cost
on other pest management activities.
COMPATIBILITY OF HPR IN IPM
• Compatibility with chemical control
•- HPR enhances efficacy of insecticides.
• -Lower concentration of insecticide is sufficient to
control insects of resistant variety.
b. Compatibility with biological control
• -Resistant varieties reduce pest numbers- thus shifting
pest: predatory (or parasitoid) ratio favourable for
biological control.
• -Insects feeding on resistant varieties are more susceptible
to virus diseases.
c. Compatibility with cultural method
• -Cultural practices can help in better utilization of resistant
varieties.
 ADVANTAGES OF HPR IN IPM
• Specificity: Specific to the target pest. Natural enemies
unaffected.
• Cumulative effect: Lasts for many successive generations
• Eco-friendly: No pollution. No effect on man and animals.
• Easy adoptable: High yielding insect resistant variety easily
accepted and adopted by the farmers. Less costs.
• Effectiveness: Resistant variety increases efficacy of insecticides
and natural enemies.
• Compatibility: HPR can be combined with all other components
• Decreased pesticide application: Resistant varieties requires
less frequent and low doses of insecticides.
• Persistence: Some varieties have durable resistance for long
periods.
• Unique situations: HPR effective where other control measures
are less effective. Ex. :
• a.When timing of application is critical.
• b. Crop of low economic value.
• c. Pest is continuously present and is a single limiting factor.
 DISADVANTAGE OF HPR
• Time consuming: Requires 3-10 years by traditional
breeding programmes to develop resistant variety.
• Biotype development: A biotype is a new population
capable of damaging and surviving on plants previously
resistant to other population of same species.
• Genetic limitations: Absence of resistance genes among
available germination
CHEMICAL CONTROL
 CHEMICAL CONTROL MEASURES
Pesticides are important control measures for a wide variety of pests because :
- they are convenient to use
- are generally economical
- provide quick control
- are able to reduce pest populations to extremely low levels.
- when properly used in conjunction with other control measures, pesticides
can also be an important component in integrated pest management
programs.
- however, pesticides also have the potential to harm humans, livestock and
wildlife, pollute the environment, and destroy beneficial organisms, and
growing concern about the increasing resistance of pest to pesticides.
 General Modes of Action of Pesticides
a. Insecticides
• Stomach poisons are usually eaten by the pest and
absorbed into the body through the digestive tract.
• Contact poisons enter an insect’s body as a result of
contact with treated surface such as plant foliage.
• Systemic poisons are absorbed by the plant through the
leaves, stems, fruit or roots and move through the
plant’s vascular system to other parts of the plant.
Insects acquire these poisons by feeding upon the
treated plant.
• Physical poisons may kill insects by suffocating them
(e.g. dusts) or by disrupting the cuticle (e.g. petroleum
oils) thus killing the insect by desiccation.
b. Fungicides
• Eradicants are applied to destroy diseases already established
on plants.
• Protectants are applied to the plant prior to infection to
prevent the establishment or development of diseases.
c. Herbicides
• Contact herbicides kill that part of the plant to which they
come into direct contact.
• Systemic herbicides are absorbed by the plant’s leaves or
roots and translocated within the plant to other tissues.
d. Rodenticides
• Acute poisons are highly toxic to rodents and after
ingestion, rapidly kill them.
• Chronic poisons are anticoagulants, which cause
rodents to die of widespread bleeding after they have
consumed the materials continuously over three to ten
days.
 TYPES OF PESTICIDE APPLICATION
• Curative applications – refer to the use of broad-
spectrum pesticides to quickly remove or minimize pest
populations.
• Protectant applications – pesticides are applied before
the predicted infestation or attack of the pest.
• Prophylactic programs – pesticides are
continuously applied throughout the crop growth
stages to prevent the expansion of pests.
• Economic threshold programs – new methods use
in integrated pest management programs.
Pesticides are applied only when pest populations
reached the economic threshold.
TYPES OF PESTICIDES
FORMULATIONS
A. Dry Formulations – these are usually applied
undiluted and include dusts, granules and wettable
powders that are mixed with a liquid before application.
• Dusts – the technical material is mixed with a carrier
such as finely ground clay, talc or volcanic ash. Dust
requires no additional mixing and can be applied
directly to the plant.
• Granules – the technical material is mixed with dry
particles of clay or sand which are larger than those
used in a dust formulation.
• Wettable Powders – are easy to carry, store, measure
and mix and are effectively used to treat foliage.
B. Liquid Formulations – the main type of liquid formulation is the
emulsifiable concentrate, which must be diluted, usually with water,
• Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC) – these consist of technical
material, organic solvent, emulsifier, spreaders, and stickers.
-The organic solvent dissolves the pesticides, while the emulsifier
allows the pesticide to be mixed with water.

-Spreaders and stickers are added to enable the product to cover the
target area more effectively.
-Liquid formulations are easy to transport and store,
-Require little agitation in the tank to keep them mixed and are
effective for treating foliage.
• Flowable Formulations – flowables are a special type
of liquid formulation containing finely ground solid
particles of pesticides suspended in a liquid.
• (c) Seed Treatments – are similar to wettable powders, however
the powder particles carrying the pesticides in seed treatments are
more finely ground. Thus, a relatively thick coating adheres to the
seed.
• (d) Plant Drenches – In this treatment process, the roots of
seedling plants or rooted cuttings are soaked for several hours in a
slurry or strong solution of systemic pesticide until the pesticide is
absorbed and spread throughout the plant.
• (e) Poisonous Bait - this formulation consists of a pesticide mixed
with regular food which when eaten by pests, causes their death.
Baits are commonly used to control pests such rats and birds.