Power System Protection Relay

Govt. College of Engineering and Textile Technology,

Berhampore
Bikash Das
Power System II (EE 602)
3rd Year EE
 Torque Equation of Relay
• The universal relay torque equation is given as
follows:
 Different Type of Relay
The different type of relays are-
• Over Current Relay.
• Impedance relay.
• Modified impedance relay.
• Differential relay.
• Pilot Relay.
• Microprocessor based/Digital relay
 Over Current Relay
• For over-current relay, K2 and K3 are zero.
• The torque equation of over current relay
T=K1. I^2 + K
• As shown in Figure 10.1, the CT secondary
current I’ is the input to the overcurrent relay
operating coil. Instantaneous overcurrent
relays respond to the magnitude of their input
current, as shown by the trip and block
Fig. 1
regions in Figure 2. If the current magnitude
I’= |I’| exceeds a specified adjustable current
magnitude Ip, called the pickup current, then
the relay contacts close “instantaneously” to
energize the circuit breaker trip coil. If I’ is
less than the pickup current Ip, then the relay
contacts remain open, blocking the trip coil.

Fig. 2
Contd.
Time-delay overcurrent relays also respond to the
magnitude of their input current, but with an
intentional time delay. As shown in Figure 3,
the time delay depends on the magnitude of
the relay input current. If I’ is a large multiple
of the pickup current Ip, then the relay
operates (or trips) after a small time delay. For
smaller multiples of pickup, the relay trips
after a longer time delay. And if I’ < Ip, the
relay remains in the blocking position.
Fig. 3
 Radial System Protection
• Many radial systems are protected by time-delay overcurrent relays.
Adjustable time delays can be selected such that the breaker closest to the
fault opens, while other upstream breakers with larger time delays remain
closed. That is, the relays can be coordinated to operate in sequence so as
to interrupt minimum load during faults. Successful relay coordination is
obtained when fault currents are much larger than normal load currents.
Also, coordination of overcurrent relays usually limits the maximum
number of breakers in a radial system to five or less; otherwise the relay
closest to the source may have an excessive time delay.
• Consider a fault at P1 to the right of breaker B3 for the radial system of
Figure 4. For this fault breaker B3 should open while B2 (and B1) remains
closed. Under these conditions, only load L3 is interrupted. Select a longer
time delay for the relay at B2, so that B3 operates first. Thus, for any fault
to the right of B3, B3 provides primary protection. Only if B3 fails to open
will B2 open, after a time delay, thus providing backup protection.

Fig. 4
Contd.
• Similarly, consider a fault at P2 between B2 and B3. B2 should open while
B1 remains closed. Under these conditions, loads L2 and L3 are
interrupted. Since the fault is closer to the source, the fault current is larger
than for the previous fault considered. B2, set to open for the previous,
smaller fault current after a time delay, will open more rapidly for this
fault. Also selected is the B1 relay with a longer time delay than B2, so that
B2 opens first. Thus, B2 provides primary protection for faults between B2
and B3, as well as backup protection for faults to the right of B3. Similarly,
B1 provides primary protection for faults between B1 and B2, as well as
backup protection for further downstream faults.
• The coordination time interval is the time interval between the primary and
remote backup protective devices. It is the difference between the time that
the backup relaying operates and the time that circuit breakers clear the
fault under primary relaying. Precise determination of relay operating
times is complicated by several factors, including CT error, dc offset
component of fault current, and relay over travel.
 Directional Over Current Relay
• The direction property of over current relay
provide the ability to the relay to identify in
which direction of the relay, the fault occurred.
For example lets consider in the fig. 4, the fault
occurred at point P2, under that scenario B2 and
B3 are subjected to the fault. But to isolate the
faulty section only B2 need to be operated. So,
the directional property of relay provide the
ability to identify whether the fault occurred in
the forward direction or backward direction. And
based on the setting the relay will operate.
 Contd.
• The directional unit is a four-pole induction cup unit.
Two opposite poles are fed with voltage and the other
two poles are fed with current. The voltage is taken as
the polarizing quantity. The polarizing quantity is one
which produces one of the two fluxes required for
production of torque and this quantity is taken as the
reference compared with the other quantity which is
current here. This means that the phase angle of the
polarizing quantity must remain more or less fixed when
the other quantity suffers wide changes in phase angle.
• In a circuit at a point the current can flow in one Fig. 5
direction at a particular instant. Let us say this is the
normal direction of flow of current. Under this condition
the directional unit will develop negative torque and the
relay will be restrained to operate. Now if due to certain
changes in the circuit condition, the current flows in
opposite direction, the relay will develop positive torque
and will operate.
Contd.
• For a directional over-current unit unless the directional
unit contacts are closed, the over-current unit is not
energized because the operating coil of the over-current
unit completes its circuit through the directional unit
contacts or if the over-current unit has shading coil on its
poles for the production of lagging flux; then the shading
coil completes its circuit through the directional unit
contacts
• The torque equation of this kind of relay is
T = K3VI cos (θ – τ) + K
**(K can be +ve/-ve based on the setting parameter)
τ is maximum torque angle
 Contd.
Fig. 6
Lets consider for the circuit fault occurred at A.
• The phasor diagram is shown in Fig.7. Here φv is the flux due to the
voltage coil and lags behind the voltage by about 60° to 70°. φ1 is the flux
due to the current coil. The net torque is produced due to the interaction of
φI and φv. The torque is maximum when the two fluxes are displaced by
90°. Here dotted line in the phasor diagram represents the desired position
of φI for maximum torque and since V is the reference or polarising
quantity and φv has fixed position with respect to V for a particular
design, the angle between the dotted line and the polarising quantity V is Fig. 7
known as the maximum torque angle and is normally denoted by τ. This
means when the relay current leads the voltage by an angle τ, maximum
torque is produced.
• Referring again the torque equation, if V is fixed and under operating
condition K is negligible, then
I cos (θ – τ) = 0
Since I cannot be zero for torque production
cos (θ – τ) = 0
θ – τ = ±π/2
∴ θ = τ ± π/2 Fig. 8
• This is the equation describing the polar characteristic (Fig. 8) of the
directional relay.
Contd.
• In the fig. 8, the zone between the dotted line and the line
parallel to it corresponds to the spring torque. If the current
vector lies within these lines the torque developed is less than
the spring torque and hence the relay does not operate. If the
current crosses the dotted line the spring torque is less than the
operating torque and hence the relay operates.
 Distance Relay/ Impedance Relay
• From the universal torque equation putting K3 and K = 0 and giving
negative sign to voltage term, it becomes
T = K1I^2 – K2V^2 (neglecting spring torque)
• This means the operating torque is produced by the current coil and
restraining torque by the voltage coil, which means that an
impedance relay is a voltage restrained over-current relay. For the
operation of the relay the operating torque should be greater than the
restraining torque, i.e.,
K1I^2 > K2V^2
Here V and I are the voltage and current quantities fed to the relay.
Contd.
• The operating characteristic of an
impedance relay on V-I diagram is
shown in Fig. 9. The initial bend in the
characteristic is due to the presence of
spring torque.
• Normally, the operating characteristics
Fig. 9
of distance relays are shown on an
impedance diagram or R-X diagram.
This characteristic for an impedance
diagram is shown in Fig. 10.
• The impedance relays normally used
are high speed relays. These relays may
use a balance beam structure or an
Fig. 10
induction cup structure.
Contd.
• The directional property to the impedance
relay can be given by using the impedance
relay along with a directional unit as is done
in case of a simple overcurrent relay to work
as a directional over current relay. This
means the impedance unit will operate only
when the directional unit has operated. The
characteristic of such a combination will be Fig. 11
as shown in Fig. 11.
• From the characteristic it is clear that if the
impedance vector as seen by the relay lies in
a zone indicated by the thick line
(intersection of straight line and circle) the
relay will operate, otherwise, it will not.
Modified Impedance Relay/ Mho Relay
• In this relay the operating torque is obtained by the V-I
element and restraining torque due to the voltage
element. This means a mho relay is a voltage restrained
directional relay. From the universal torque equation-

Fig. 12

• This characteristic, when drawn on an admittance

diagram is a straight line passing through the origin
and if drawn on an impedance diagram it is a circle
passing through the origin as shown in Fig. 12.
Contd.

• The relay operates when the impedance seen

by the relay falls within this circle. The relay is
inherently directional so that it needs only one
pair of contacts which makes it fast tripping
for fault clearance and reduces the VA burden
on the current transformers.
 Application
Distance protection schemes are commonly
employed for providing the primary or main
protection and backup protection for AC
transmission line and distribution line against
three phase faults, phase-to-phase faults, and
phase-to-ground faults.
 Differential Relay
• Differential relays are commonly used to protect generators,
buses, and transformers. Fig. 13 illustrates the basic method of
differential relaying for generator protection. The protection of
only one phase is shown. The method is repeated for the other
two phases. When the relay in any one phase operates, all three
phases of the main circuit breaker will open, as well as the
generator neutral and field breakers

Fig. 13
Contd.
• For the case of no internal fault within the generator windings,
I1 = I2, and, assuming identical CTs, I1’ = I2’. For this case
the current in the relay operating coil is zero, and the relay
does not operate. On the other hand, for an internal fault such
as a phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase short within the
generator winding, I1 ≠ I2, and I1’ ≠ I2’. Therefore, a
difference current I1’-I2’ flows in the relay operating coil,
which may cause the relay to operate. Since this relay
operation depends on a difference current, it is called a
differential relay.

• Differential protection scheme is also known as merz price

protection.
 Application of differential relay

Differential relay is used to

protect the following –
• Bus bar
• Transformer
• Generator
• Switchyard

Fig. 14
Transformer Differential Protection

Fig. 15
 Pilot Relay
• Pilot relaying refers to a type of differential protection that
compares the quantities at the terminals via a communication
channel rather than by a direct wire interconnection of the
relays. Differential protection of generators, buses, and
transformers considered in previous sections does not require
pilot relaying because each of these devices is at one
geographical location where CTs and relays can be directly
interconnected. However, differential relaying of transmission
lines requires pilot relaying because the terminals are widely
separated (often by many kilometers). In actual practice, pilot
relaying is typically applied to short transmission lines (up to
80 km) with 69 to 115 kV ratings.
Contd.
Four types of communication channels are used for pilot relaying:
• 1. Pilot wires: Separate electrical circuits operating at dc, 50 to 60 Hz,
or audio frequencies. These could be owned by the power company or
leased from the telephone company.
• 2. Power-line carrier: The transmission line itself is used as the
communication circuit, with frequencies between 30 and 300 kHz being
transmitted. The communication signals are applied to all three phases
using an L–C voltage divider and are confined to the line under
protection by blocking filters called line traps at each end.
• 3. Microwave: A 2 to 12 GHz signal transmitted by line-of-sight paths
between terminals using dish antennas.
• 4. Fiber optic cable: Signals transmitted by light modulation through
electrically nonconducting cable. This cable eliminates problems due to
electrical insulation, inductive coupling from other circuits, and
atmospheric disturbances.
Contd.
• Two common fault detection methods are directional comparison,
where the power flows at the line terminals are compared, and
phase comparison, where the relative phase angles of the currents
at the terminals are compared. Also, the communication channel
can either be required for trip operations, which is known as a
transfer trip system, or not be required for trip operations, known as
a blocking system. A particular pilot-relaying method is usually
identified by specifying the fault-detection method and the channel
use. The four basic combinations are directional comparison
blocking, directional comparison transfer trip, phase comparison
blocking, and phase comparison transfer trip.
• Like differential relays, pilot relays provide primary zone protection
without backup. Thus, coordination with protection in adjacent
zones is eliminated, resulting in high-speed tripping. Precise relay
settings are unnecessary. Also, the need to calculate system fault
currents and voltages is eliminated.
 Microprocessor based/Digital Relay/ Numerical
Relay
• With increase in interconnection of power system components, larger sizes
of alternators and higher capacity (Higher voltage) transmission lines it has
become almost essential to operate the protective relays and CBS as fast as
possible to improve the transient stability of power system.
• Previous sections covered the operating principle of relays built with
electromechanical components, including the induction disc time-delay
over-current relay; the directional relay, similar in operation to a watt-hour
meter; and the balance-beam differential relay. These electromechanical
relays, introduced in the early 1900s, have performed well over the years
and continue in relatively maintenance-free operation today. Solid-state
relays using analog circuits and logic gates, with block-trip regions similar
to those of electromechanical relays and with newer types of block/trip
regions, have been available since the late 1950s. Such relays, widely used
in HV and EHV systems, offer the reliability and ruggedness of their
electromechanical counterparts at a competitive price. Beyond solid-state
analog relays, a new generation of numeric relays based on digital computer
technology has been under development since the 1980s.
Contd.
• The numeric relay (or digital relay) is a protective relay that uses a
microprocessor with software for purposes of fault detection.
Benefits of numeric relays include the following:
● Compact size
● Programmable
● Low burden
● Multi-function capability
● Flexibility and Reliability
● Sensitivity and Speed
● Permits storage of fault data and disturbance records
● Self-checking diagnostics
● Adaptive relaying schemes
● Digital communications capabilities
● Costs
Contd.
• The Numerical relay operates based on the
collected samples. And comparing the samples
with the samples at healthy condition.
• As the numerical relays are operated by the
microprocessor, the relay can offer different
protection scheme with in a single unit. The
capability of identify the fault is very fast and
accurate for the digital relays.
• The digital relay do have some limitation. It
have a potential risk of hacking.
 Recent Trend in protection
• Now a days for more reliable, accurate and
fast protection scheme Wide Area
Measurement (WAM) or Wide Area Protection
(WAP) is used.
• Application of Big Data can also be noticed in
power system Protection.
 Special Relay
Except the mentioned relays there are some
other relays which are used for protection of
particular devices.
• Buchholz Relay
• Under voltage Relay
• Over voltage relay
• Earth fault relay
 Buchholz Relay
• Whenever a fault takes place in a transformer the
oil of the tank gets overheated and gases are
formed. The generation of the gases may be slow
or violent depending upon whether the fault is a
minor or incipient one or heavy short circuit. The
generation of gas is used as a means of fault
detection. Buchholz relay is the simplest form of
protection which is commonly used for this form
of protection in all transformers provided with
conservators. It consists of two hinged floats in a
metallic chamber, which is connected in the upper
side of the pipe run between the oil conservator
Fig. 16
and the transformer tank. One of the floats is near
the top of the chamber and the other opposite the
orifice of the pipe to the transformer as shown in
Fig. 16.
Contd.
• For a minor or incipient fault, the slow generation of gas gives
rise to gas bubbles which try to go to the conservator but are
trapped in the upper portion of the relay chamber, thereby a
fall in oil level takes place. This disturbs the equilibrium of the
gas float. The float tilts and the alarm circuit is closed through
the mercury switch and the indication is given.
• For a heavy fault, large volumes of gases are generated which
cause violent displacement of the oil and impinge upon the
baffle plates of the lower float and thus the balance of the
lower float is disturbed. The lower float is tilted and the
contacts are closed which are arranged to trip the transformer.
 Assignment
• Write Short Note (in your own word) on the
following
• Generator Protection
• WAP
• Application of Big data in power system
protection.
 References
• Electrical Power System – C. L Wadhwa
• Power System Engineering – Nagrath, Kothari
• For any query or doubt please feel free to
contact me