Managing Teaching and Learning

M anaging
teaching and
learning
Departm entofEducation
M anaging teaching and learning

A m odule ofthe Advanced Certificate:Education (SchoolM anagem entand Leadership)
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M anaging
teaching and
learning
Advanced Certificate:Education (SchoolM

anagem entand Leadership)
Table ofContents
A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s .............................................................................................6
Acronyms and abbreviations used in the programme ............................................................................. 7
Word of welcome.................................................................................................................................. 9
What this module is about ..................................................................................................................... 9
Module outcomes.................................................................................................................................. 9
Learning time........................................................................................................................................10
Link with other modules........................................................................................................................10
UNIT 1:LEADING AND M ANAGING A SCHOOL AS A LEARNING ORGANIZATION .............11

1.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n .............................................................................................1 3
Issues...................................................................................................................................................1
3
1.2 PLearning
r e p a r inoutcomes ...............................................................................................................................14
g y o u r selfasa c u r r icul u m le a d e r ..................................................................1 5
1.2.1 Leadership qualities and strategies for instructional leadership...............................................15
1.3 T h e c o n t e x t f o r s c h o o l le a d e r s h i p .............................................................................1 8
1.4 Distributed leadership foreffective teaching and learning .............................................19
1.4.1 The principal as part of the leadership team...........................................................................19
1.4.2 Teacher leadership.................................................................................................................21
1.4.3 Stimulating and motivating your educators.............................................................................22
1.5 E s t a b l ishi n g a le a r n i n g c ul tu r e ................................................................................2 5
1.5.1 Defining a ‘learning culture’....................................................................................................27
1.5.2 Being responsible for creating a learning culture in a school...................................................28
1.5.3 Leading the school as context and workplace ........................................................................29
1.6 De v e l o p i n g pl a n s to m a n a g e a n d le a d .......................................................................3 0
1 . 7 C o n c l u d i n g r e m a r k s ........................................... ............................................ 3 3
UNIT 2:PLAN AND IM PLEMENT A CURRICULUM ............................................................35

2.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n .............................................................................................3 7
Learning outcomes ...............................................................................................................................37
2.2 T h e c o n c e p t o f c u r r ic u l u m ...................................................................................4 2
2.2.1 Different conceptions of curriculum.......................................................................................42
2.2.2 Curriculum delivery................................................................................................................43
2.3 The im pactoforganisationalstructure on curriculum delivery..........................................44
2.4 An overview ofthe NationalCurriculum Statem entforSchools (NCS)....................................45
2.5 C u r riculu m data collectio n a nd m a n a g e m ent.............................................................48
2.5.1 Benchmarking........................................................................................................................48
2.5.2 Learner records and reporting................................................................................................49
2.5.3 Analysing and interpreting data..............................................................................................50
2.6 Learning and teaching supportm aterials (LT S M s)......................................................52
2.6.1 Choosing, ordering and tracking LTSMs.................................................................................52
2.6.2 Delivery, distribution and retrieval ..........................................................................................53
2.6.3 Towards a school policy framework and process....................................................................53
2.7 C o n c l u d i n g r e m a r k s o n U n i t2 .................................................................. ..............5 7
UNIT 3:SKILLS AND PROCESSES FOR MANAGING TEACHING AND LEARNING

A S S E S S M E N T ................................................................................................................59
3.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n .............................................................................................6 1
Unit 3 Learning Outcomes ....................................................................................................................61
3.2 Managing teaching and learning for school improvement........................................................... 62
3.3 Monitoring classroom practice................................................................................................... 64
3.4 Evaluating learner outcomes...................................................................................................... 66
3.4.1 Within-school variation...........................................................................................................66
3.5 Observation.............................................................................................................................. 69
3.5.1 The purpose of observation....................................................................................................69
3.5.2 Developing observation skills.................................................................................................71
3.6 Scrutinising educators’ and learners’ work ................................................................................. 73
3.7 Modelling good classroom practice............................................................................................ 75
3.8 Dialogue and feedback.............................................................................................................. 77
3.9 Conclusion: towards effective management of teaching and learning.......................................... 78
References...........................................................................................................................................80
TEXTS & TEM PLATES.....................................................................................................83

Reader ................................................................ ..........................................................................
.... 85
Text 1: Developing an NCS timetable ................................................................................................85
Illustrative
templates.......................................................................................................................... 93
Template 1: Ways of leading and
managing......................................................................................93
Template 2: Selection of text-based
LTSMs......................................................................................95
Template 3: Selection of other
LTSMs..............................................................................................98
Template 4: District level analysis of quarterly school
performance.................................................100
Template 5: Structure for cumulative/quarterly
tests.......................................................................102
Template 6: Item
analysis...............................................................................................................103
Template 7: Learner assessment
records .......................................................................................104
Template 8: Moderator’s report on quarterly
test............................................................................105
L i st o f t abl e s
Table 1: Factors supporting and inhibiting effective teaching and learning
(adapted from Bush et al 2008)................................................................................................18
Table 2: Needs analysis for ways of leading and managing
(Adapted from Emerging Leadership Practices (2001), Stinnette, L.J and Peterson, K.).............30
Table 3: Applying ‘within-school variation’ to one South African secondary school.................................66
Table 4: Explaining ‘within-school variation’ at my school ......................................................................67
Table 5: Classroom observation instrument: secondary school A...........................................................71
Acknowledgem ents
This material is the product of a collaborative endeavour involving representatives of the

following organisations and institutions:
Cooper King
Department of Education – Education Management and Governance Development
Directorate
GMSA Foundation
Management of Schools Training Programme (MSTP)
Matthew Goniwe School of Leadership and Governance (MGSLG)
National Association of Professional Teachers of South Africa (NAPTOSA)
National Association of Teacher Unions (NATU)
Pauline Matlhaela and Associates, Skills Development Services Pty (Ltd)
Regenesys
South African Democratic Teachers Union (SADTU)
South African Institute for Distance Education (SAIDE)
South African Principals’ Association (SAPA)
Shuttleworth Foundation
Ukukhula Projects
University of Fort Hare
University of South Africa (UNISA)
University of Stellenbosch
University of the Free State
University of the Witwatersrand
Zenex Foundation
as well as a number of individual consultants, and reflects feedback from personnel from all
the Higher Education Institutions involved in developing this course.
Foreword
Acronym s and abbreviations used in the program m e
AC Assessment Criteria
ACE Advanced Certificate: Education
AGM Annual General Meeting
CCFO Critical cross-field outcome
CHE Council on Higher Education
DoE Department of Education
DSG Development Support Group
EMD Education Management Development
ETQA Education and Training Quality Assurance body
HEQC Higher Education Quality Committee
INSET In-service Education and Training
IQMS Integrated Quality Management System
NCS National Curriculum Statement
NLRD National Learners’ Records Database
NQF National Qualifications Framework
OBA Outcomes-Based Assessment
OBE Outcomes-Based Education
PGP Personal Growth Plan
PoE Portfolio of Evidence
RPL Recognition of Prior Learning
SACE South African Council of Educators
SAQA South African Qualifications Authority
SAUVCA South African University Vice-Chancellors’ Association
SDT Staff Development Team
SGB School Governing Body
SGB Standards Generating Body
SMT School Management Team
SO Specific Outcome
US Unit Standard
Overview
W ord ofwelcom e
W elcom e to this core ACE m odule on M anaging teaching and learning.
In the core ACE m odule on Understanding schoolleadership and m anagem entin

the South African context,you explored principles and values thatinform
educationaltransform ation in South Africa.In the othercore m odules you explore
various aspects ofthis transform ation process,focussing on issues such as
leading and m anaging people,w orking w ith policy,and m anaging organisational,
physicaland financialresources.This m odule focuses on the core business of
transform ing schools,thatofteaching and learning.The purpose ofthis m odule is
to enable you to acquire relevantknow ledge and skills as w ellas to develop
appropriate attitudes and values in orderto m anage teaching and learning
effectively.
W hat this m odule is about

This m odule is aboutthe m anagem entofteaching and learning. W e begin by
exploring the schoolas a learning organization and prom oting a culture oflearning
and teaching,w hich is dedicated to constantrenew aland im provem ent.W e w ill
also tackle the issue ofcontext,and w illlook atthe w ays in w hich the physical
environm entofthe schoolim pacts on the quality oflearning. This leads us into
an exploration ofthe challenges ofeffectively planning,im plem enting,m onitoring
and evaluating a curriculu m thatneeds constantly to change and reinventitselfin
line w ith the changing needs ofa changing society. In particular,w e focus on
w hatis required to im prove teaching and learning in orderto produce enhanced
learneroutcom es.This paves the w ay forthe identification and developm entof
the skills and processes needed to lead and m anage effective teaching and
learning.
M odule outcom es
By the end ofthe m odule you should be able to:
 De m onstrate the personaland professionalqualities necessary foreffective
m anagem entofteaching and learning in the schoolas a learning
organisation
 Create,m anage and sustain a caring,disciplined and effective learning
environm ent
 M anage the planning and im plem entation ofteaching in a transform ed
learning school
 M onitorand evaluate teaching and learning in a transform ed learning school
 Understand and be able to lead an effective program m e ofclassroom
observation
 Be aw are ofgood teaching practice and arrange foritto be m odelled in your
school
 Understand and be able to apply relevantcontentknow ledge forthe
evaluation and renew alofeffective teaching and learning.
| 10 | ACE SM L | MANAGING TEACHING AND LEARNING
Learning tim e
This m odule carries 20 credits.Itshould,therefore,take the average learner
approxim ately 200 hours to successfully com plete the m odule.The 200 hours
includes contacttim e,reading tim e,research tim e and tim e required to w rite
assig nm ents.R e m e m berthatabouthalfofyourtim e w illbe spentc om pleting
practice-based activities in yourschool.This w illoften involve you in discussions
w ith yourcolleagues.A m ore specific indication oftim e to be spenton each of
these activities w illbe provided in each ofthe units thatm ake up the Learning
Guide partofthe m odule,as w ellas in additionalcom m unications from yourHEI.
Link with other m odules

M anaging teaching and learning is a core m odule.In the actualprocess of
m anaging teaching and learning,you w illfind yourselfneeding to draw upon the
w ork covered in allofthe othercore m odules:
 Understand schoolleadership and m anagem entin the South African
c on t e xt
 Lead and m anage people
 M anage organisationalsyste m s,physicaland financialresources
 M anage policy,planning,schooldevelopm entand governance
 Language in leadership and m anagem ent.
LeadiUning andt 1:mLeadiang
ngngaand schoolas a learning
organization
Introduction
Issues
Learning outcomes
1.1
Preparing yourselfas a curriculum leader
1.2.1 Leadership qualities and strategies for instructional leadership
1.2
The Context for SchoolLeadership 1.3
Distributed Leadership
1.4.1 Th e principal as part of the leadership team
1.4.2 Teacher leadership
1.4
1.4.3 Stimulating and motivating your educators
Establishing a learning culture

1.5.1 Defining a ‘learning culture’
1.5.2 Being responsible for creating a learning culture in a school
1.5
1.5.3 Leading the school as context and workplace Developing
1.6
plans to m anage and lead Concluding rem arks
1.7
Leading and m anaging a
schoolas a learning
organization
1.1 Introduction
As a principal or prospective principal you are a leader and manager of your
school, with a critical role to play in its ongoing development. Your focus should
be to expect all the learners in your school to improve their knowledge and
develop into the best people they can be, for the educators to teach and support
the development of learners, and for the community to support the school in this
quest. So, it is about the learners and your staff, not you.
However, no school is a perfect environment and school managers need to focus

centrally on teaching and learning as the main purpose of education, through
becoming a learning organisation. The role of principals and other school
managers is to adopt a critical perspective, constantly questioning how to
improve teaching and learning in your school.
In the other parts of this module the focus is on the detailed aspects on which
school managers need to work in order to ensure an environment for effective
learning such as how to evaluate this quest for improvement through professional
performance evaluations, and what to focus on in the learning process (or details
about the curriculum).
Issues
The unit will explore the following issues:
 What are the characteristics of a successful principal? What are their roles
as managers and leaders with respect to teaching and learning?
 How do we identify a “good” school?
 How does a principal facilitate his/her staff and learners to be “better”?
Ho w does s/he lead? Ho w does s/he manage?
 How would you (as principal) establish a “learning culture”?
 What is a learning culture?
 How do we create a learning culture?
 How do we facilitate learning? How does this process relate to the planning
of a learning context in a school or learning organization?
 How does the principal help educators to develop innovative teaching?
 How does the principal support the professional development of the
teachers and staff? To do so, how does a principal facilitate
access to the required resources?
Learning outcom es
By the end of this unit, you should be better able to:
 demonstrate your personal qualities as an “instructional” leader;
 demonstrate your management and leadership style to lead all stakeholders
involved in the teaching and learning at a typical “learning” school;
 explore ways of how, and under which conditions, your learners learn best;
 explore how to improve and relate your learners’ academic achievements
to
the quality of your leadership and to the school’s learning culture;
 indicate how your own achievements , your students’ achievements , and
your staff ’s achievements are all supported by international research and
your collective research culture;
 improve the current professional development plans (according to national
and provincial policies and guidelines).
Recom m ended reading

Harris, A. (2004), Distributed leadership and school improvement: leading
or misleading? EducationalM anagem ent,Adm inistration and Leadership, 32 (1),
11- 24.
Leithwood, K., Day, C., Sammons, P., Harris, A. and Hopkins, D. (2006),
Seven Strong Claim s aboutSuccessfulSchoolLeadership, Nottingham, NCSL
(www.ncsl.org.uk)
Lumby, J. (1997), The learning organisation, in Bush, T. and Middlewood, D.
(Eds.), M anaging People in Education, London, Paul Chapman Publishing, 31-42.
UNIT ONE | LEADING AND M ANAGING A SCHOOL AS A LEARNING ORGANIZATION | 15 |
1.2 Preparing yourselfas a curriculum leader

In this section we will investigate your own personal views on leadership and
management at a school and then move on to developing a more collective view.
YOUR ROLE AND VISION AS A PRINCIPAL
Reflect on the following issues privately for your journal. Leave

space to add to this activity later.
1. What are your opinions about the issues faced by principals in schools
today? State your country or regional context clearly. Explain/validate
your opinions with examples from your experience. (Do not worry to
validate your experience with other people’s knowledge at this stage;
we will come back to this issue later.)
2. What is your vision/hope for teaching and learning at your school?
You m ay have w ritten a lotin yourow n w ords,stating freely

youropinions, excitem entaboutyourjob,and you m ay have included a few
realfrustrating areas thatconcern you atthe sam e tim e.Go back to yourw riting
and m ark
each statem entas:Exciting!(w ith green pen);or,Concern!(w ith red pen).
This process ofw riting is a good starting pointfora num berofpsychological
and learning reasons,such as stating to yourselfw here you are now and w here
you w antto go.Afteryourlearning w e w illcom e back to this exercise to
com pare how you m ay have changed ornot.
1.2.1 Leadership qualities and strategies forinstructionalleadership

Instructional leadership may be defined as follows:
‘Instructional leadership focuses on teaching and learning and on the
behaviour of teachers in working with students. Leaders’ influence is
targeted at student learning via teachers’ (Bush and Glover 2002: 10).
Southworth (2002, 2004) prefers to use the term ‘learning-centred leadership’
and he argues that school leaders influence teaching and learning through three
main activities:
 Modelling
 Monitoring
 Dialogue.
We shall examine each of these processes later in this module.
Southworth (2004: 78) adds that the influence of the principal on teaching
and learning takes three forms:
 Direct effects – where your actions directly influence school outcomes.
 Indirect effects – where you affect outcomes indirectly through other
people.
 Reciprocal effects – where leaders affect educators and educators affect
leaders.
Indirect effects are the most common because principals and other managers
work with and through others.
Drawing on Southworth’s three forms of influence above, give one example of

1a each type of effect. These may be based on your current practice or be an
example of an innovation you would like to consider introducing at your school.
± 30 m in
Yourexam ples w illreflectyourexperience and m ay relate to existing,or

possible new ,practice in yourschool.Ouransw ers are:
Direct effects include your own practice as a teacher, and demonstrating (or
modelling) good practice to your educators.
Indirect effects include changes made by educators in response to your role in
monitoring teaching and learning, and providing constructive feedback.
Reciprocal effects arise from dialogue (see discussion above). In conversations
between leaders and educators, whether formal or informal, the exchange of
ideas leads to improved classroom practice.
Leithwood et al (2006) are undertaking a major study of the impact of school

leadership on student outcomes, for the English government. One of their early
publications makes ‘seven strong claims’ about the impact of school leadership
based on a comprehensive review of the international literature. These ‘claims’
are shown below, with our comments (in italics):
1. School leadership is second only to classroom teaching as an influence on
pupil learning (so you can m ake a realdifference to yourlearners).
2. Almost all successful leaders draw on the same repertoire of basic
leadership practices (see below fora fullerdiscussion ofthis repertoire).
3. The ways in which leaders apply these basic leadership practices
demonstrate responsiveness to, rather than dictation by, the contexts in
which they work (so sensitivity to contextis vitalbutshould notbe an
excuse forpoorlearning outcom es).
4. School leaders improve teaching and learning indirectly and most
powerfully through their influence on staff motivation, commitment and
working conditions (see belo w fora fullerdiscussion ofthis issue).
5. School leadership has a greater influence on schools and students when it
is widely distributed (the m ore effective leaders there are,the greaterthe
potentialim pacton learning outcom es).
6. Some patterns of distribution are more effective than others (notably
w hen leadership influence is co-ordinated,forexam ple w ithin SM Ts).
7. A small handful of personal traits explains a high proportion of the variation
in leadership effectiveness ( the m ostsuccessfulleaders are open-m inded,
flexible,persistent,resilientand optim istic).
Basic leadership practices

Leithw ood etal(2006)identify fourleadership practices associated w ith
successfulprincipals and otherschoolm anagers.These practices are show n
below w ith ourcom m ents in italics:
Building vision and setting directions (what are the school’s purposes?).
Understanding and developing people (notably to im prove staffm
otivation
and com m itm ent).
 Redesigning the organisation (forexam ple,team building,delegating,
consulting and netw orking).
 M anaging the teaching and learning program m e (including staffing the
teaching program m e and m onitoring perform ance).
Influencing staffm otivation,com m itm ent and working

conditions
According to Leith w ood etal(2006),successfulschoolleaders have
strong positive influences on staffm otivation,com m itm entand w orking
conditions, leading to enhanced classroom practices.Principals need to
develop staff capacity and capability,forexam ple through
professionaldevelopm entand
w orking in team s to identify and address challenges.
1.3 The context for schoolleadership

The third of the seven ‘strong claims’ about successful school leadership refers
to the importance of applying leadership learning to the particular context where
leadership is practised. During the ACE programme, and particularly after you
become a principal, making a systematic analysis of the specific school context
will be a vital part of your role.
Reflect on the strengths and weaknesses of your school’s context. Identify

1b three factors that underpin and support effective teaching and learning. Also
identify three factors that inhibit or limit effective teaching and learning.
± 30 m in
One of the challenges facing principals in many South African schools is to

work with stakeholders to overcome the problems arising from the school’s
context and to build on the supportive factors. Your analysis is bound to be
individual but you may wish to compare your list with those identified in the
eight South African township and rural schools studied by Bush, Joubert,
Kiggundu and Van Rooyen (2008). Their main points are shown in Table 1:
TABLE 1:FACTORS SUPPORTING AND INHIBITING EFFECTIVE TEACHIN G AND LEARNING

(ADAPTED FROM BUSH ET AL 2008)
Factors supporting effective teaching Problem s inhibiting effective teaching

and learning and learning
Lively and motivated learners Hungry and demotivated learners
Committed and experienced educators Demotivated and inflexible educators

Supportive parents Disinterested and/or illiterate parents and/or
dysfunctional families
Good classrooms Overcrowded classrooms

Good LTSM Limited LTSM
Committed managers Lazy managers
Good team work Weak team work
Effective learning in previous schools or grades Ineffective learning in previous schools or grades
Extra lessons to address learning deficiencies No extra lessons to address learning deficiencies
How do your responses compare with the factors identified by Bush et al (2008)?
If your answers mostly match those in the left hand column, you have a good
basis for effective teaching and learning. If your answers mostly match those in
the right hand column, you need to develop action plans to address these
problems. Successful leaders do not simply ‘accept’ negative factors but work
hard to overcome them. One strategy for school improvement is to support

distributed leadership.
1.4 Distributed leadership for effective teaching

and learning
Two of the seven ‘strong claims’ identified above relate to distributed
leadership. You were introduced to this concept in the core module
Understanding
leadership and management in the South African context. This concept has
become increasingly important in practice, amid growing recognition that
a single- handed leadership model, involving the principal alone, does not produce
maximum benefits for the school. Distributed leadership is defined as follows:
‘Distributed leadership concentrates on engaging expertise wherever it
exists within the organisation rather than seeking this only within formal
position or role. Distributed leadership is characterised as a form of
collective leadership in which teachers develop expertise by working
together. In short, distributed leadership equates with maximising the
human capacity within the organisation.’ (Harris 2004: 14)
In this model, the principal is not the sole leader, but is at the heart of a series
of interlocking teams, working together to improve the school and enhance
learner outcomes.
1.4.1 The principalas part ofthe leadership team
Team-work is at the heart of a distributed leadership approach. The principal
needs to be a member of some school teams, and a coach to others. As such,
the principal is the catalyst for: improved student achievement, provision of
resources, and architect of improvement plans, assessor of progress, and reward
giver.
What leadership teams exist in your school? Use a broad definition of

1c leadership in identifying these teams.
± 30 m in
The most obvious leadership team in most South African schools is the School
Management Team (SMT). This body comprises all educators with
management roles – the principal, deputy principal(s) and heads of department
(HoDs). When the SMT is working well, it provides good potential for
generating and sustaining high quality teaching and learning.
However, this is not the only leadership team. Good HoDs organise their
educators into highly effective teams, sharing their expertise on their common
learning areas to improve teaching and maximise learner outcomes. There m ay
also be inform alteam s designed to im prove aspects ofschoollife,forexam ple

s c h o o l s p o r t.
Leadership team s m ay also existbeyond the professionalstaffofthe school.
Forexam ple,the m osteffective schoolgoverning bodies (SGBs)also operate
as team s,w ith lay and professionalstakeholders w orking togetherto im prove
th e s c h oo l .
Many ‘teams’ in South African schools do not operate effectively. Bush et al’s
(2008) research on the management of teaching and learning (MTL) in eight
schools in Limpopo and Mpumalanga shows that many teams were
dysfunctional. They report that their respondents were often unable to make a
clear distinction between the work of individual HoDs and the collective work of
the SMT in curriculum leadership. Five of the eight SMTs (62.5%) have little
impact on teaching and learning either because they rarely meet or because they
don’t engage with teaching and learning issues. At two schools, the SMTs do
have a formal role in managing teaching and learning while the principal at
another school is planning a stronger role for the SMT from 2009.
Bush et al (2008) conclude that, where SMTs operate successfully, they have
great potential to improve classroom practice through HoDs sharing their ideas,
developing school-wide policies and enacting consistent practice throughout the
school. Only one of their eight case study schools comes close to this idealised
model of the role of the SMT in instructional leadership.
One of the principal’s central roles is to build the SMT into an effective force for
school improvement.
The principal may do this through one or more of the strategies identified below:
 Use the team approach
 Develop individual responsibility for collective gains
 Reward people for successes
 Build on successes and learn from failures
 Examine and use a variety of models for self-development and team work
to improve teaching and learning through:
o Peer coaching
o Critical friends
o Ne w teacher/veteran partnerships
o Action research teams or study groups.
FACTORS FOR SUCCESSFUL SCHOOLS

1d
Read the following paper, noting the arguments and evidence used to support
the ‘seven strong claims’ for school leadership discussed above:
 Leithwood, K., Day, C., Sammons, P., Harris, A., Hopkins, David.
(2006)
± 8 hours Seven strong claims about successful school leadership. Accessed at
http://www.ncsl.org.uk/media/767/B2/seven-claims-to-success.pdf
This short paper summarises the international evidence on successful school

leadership. You should be aware that these leadership strategies are within the
grasp of all school principals and aspiring principals, including you! Remember
the authors’ distinctive comment that ‘there is not a single documented case of
a school turning around its pupil achievement trajectory in the absence of
talented leadership’ (Leithwood et al 2006: 5). We hope that this inspires you to
be an even better leader, so that your learners and educators can be motivated
to improve teaching and learning at your school.
1.4.2 Teacher leadership

Distributed leadership often involves an emphasis on teacher leadership. This
concept recognises that individual educators, and educator teams, are able to
exercise leadership independently of the formal management roles exercised by
principals, deputy principals and HoDs. Teacher leadership may be regarded as
consisting of ‘teachers who lead within and beyond the classroom, identify with
and contribute to a community of teacher learners and leaders, and influence
others towards improved educational practice’ (Katzenmeyer and Moller 2001:
17).
Grant (2006) argues that teacher leadership is critical in the transformation of

South African schools:
‘ Given the inequalities that remain pervasive in the schooling system
coupled with the range of new policies that require radical change in
everyone of its systems, schools can no longer be led by a lone figure at
the top of the hierarchy. The only way that schools will be able meet the
challenges is to tap the potential of all staff members and allow teachers
to experience a sense of ownership and inclusivity and lead aspects of the
change process’ (Grant 2006: 514).
Grant (2006) identifies three factors likely to promote teacher leadership:

 A collaborative culture with participatory decision-making and
vision sharing.
 A set of values, which assist in developing this collaborative culture.
 Distributed leadership on the part of the principal and formal management
teams’ (p.521).
This final point is crucial and underlines the need for principals to empower
their educators to lead and manage teaching and learning effectively. Harris and
Muijs (2003) point to the need to broker and mediate relationships between
colleagues, for some surrender of power by senior leaders, who should be
imbued with a collaborative philosophy, and for a transformation of schools into
professional learning communities. This requires a substantial change of focus for
many South African principals (Bush and Glover 2008).
How w ould you prom ote and develop teacherleadership in yourschool?

1e W hatbarriers do you foresee in stressing this approach to leadership?
± 30 m in
Differentform s ofteacherleadership have differentpositive activities and

outc om es.H o w ever,the principalneeds to considerw hethersom e orallofthe
follow ing enablers already existorcould be putin place.
 A culture thatis,orw ould be,supportive ofdistributed and teacher
leadership.
 A clearcom m itm entto this approach from the principal,the SM T and the
SGB.
 Strong supportforeducatorprofessionaldevelo p m ent.
 A collective com m itm entto schoolim provem ent.
 High levels ofteacherparticipation and involvem ent.
 Shared professionalpractice.
 Recognition and rew ard forparticipants.
1.4.3 Stim ulating and m otivating your educators

Schoolprincipals have the overallresponsibility forcreating the conditions that
supporteffective teaching and learning,w orking w ith theirSM Ts and their
educators.Each schooloffers a unique challenge,and opportunity,in developing
and enhancing learneroutc om es.
Read the case study.Answ erthe questions,m aking notes foryourjournal.

1e 1. How does this case description com pare w ith the situation in your
school?
2. W hatadvice can you,as a fello w principal,offerto M s.Setlhako to help
herturn herschoolaround into a successfullearning school?
± 30 m in 3. W rite a sim ilarcase description ofyouro w n school.Ensure thatyour
case study m akes one ofyourproble m s very clear.
M bewu School
M s Setlhako is the principalofM bew u School.She w as fairly happy w ith
the progress m ade by the schoolin recentm onths,butshe rem ained w orried.
As a m anager,she w as satisfied thatthe schoolhad setup the necessary
team s to handle issues ofgovernance,policy,finances,physicalresources,staff
developm ent,com m unication and schooldevelopm ent.In addition,there w ere
various team s involved in curriculum planning and m onitoring,the m anagem ent
ofassessm ent,and the supportoflearners w ith particularlearning needs.She
also m ade sure thatsom ebody from the schoolattended allthe training
w orkshops and discussion forum s thatw ere com m unicated via the
circuitoffice.
Those teachers who attended the meetings always had to report back on what
they had learned at the next staff meeting and write a report to the school
management.
As a leader, Ms Setlhako remained concerned, however. Despite the fact that
the staff participated in teams, the teams met irregularly and no minutes of their
meetings were available, neither were action points shared or followed up. Even
if these were available, really nothing much changed. It felt to Ms Setlhako that
in many ways they were simply ‘going through the motions’. The group
discussions following training were superficial and not too frequent, people
finding little time or energy to get excited about it. Reflection on practice was still
very limited and she was unable to see how critical reflection changed the
practical situations; change based on reflection remained a rare occurrence. Her
staff seemed willing to cooperate and would normally try to implement
suggestions or changes that she suggested, but they seemed not really to
engage with issues, suggest new things, or implement change. In fact, they
seemed somehow jaded, “tired”, and functioned in what she thought of as
‘survival mode’ rather than as the impassioned innovators that she had hoped to
nurture. She felt that the school needed to rediscover a sense of purpose and a
passion for learning. What can she do?
There are no ‘right’ answers to the question; we want you to think about Ms
Setlhako’s particular situation in order to help you to engage with issues of
innovation and self-evaluation at your own school. Many schools are like
Mbewu School - the staff simply ‘go-through-the-motions’ and they drift from
day to day - conforming, rather than transforming. Fundamental to addressing
the kind of staff malaise experienced by Ms Setlhako at Mbewu School is the
need to proceed from an understanding of the situation in which staff find
themselves. If you understand their lack of enthusiasm, perhaps you can
engage with them in a more appropriate and sensitive way. Your suggestions
could include the following:
 How many sessions for reflection will make it “regular” enough?
 What are the staff focussed on; their classrooms, extracurricular activities,
stressful events, discipline?
 How are staff valued for, and required to, improve or change, or not?
 How are staff held accountable for the performance of their learners?
 How are staff supported in their own development?
How will the rest of the staff react to new developments; as a nuisance, or as
a welcome innovative solution?
The Department of Education, teacher unions, parents, learners and other

stakeholders need to work together in the interests of effective learning and
teaching. The principal must be able to communicate with the school community.
S/he should model, mentor, organise and coordinate as necessary in meetings
with these stakeholders.
Some leadership and management thinkers maintain that the road to great
leadership and management involves the following:
 Challenging the process
 Inspiring a shared vision
 Enabling others to act

 M odelling the w ay and
 Encouraging the heart.
Ho w ever,the ability to affectthese kinds ofprocesses w illbe helped

orhindered by the endem ic culture ofthe school.So,h ow ready are
yourschoolstakeholders to truly em brace the kind oftransform ationalchange
envisaged by policy? Does the culture ofyourdepartm entand
schoolsupporttransform ation?
1.5 Establishing a learning culture

Culture can be thought of as "the way we do things around here". Culture is
complex and includes attitudes, behaviours and routine practices. It may be
defined as follows:
‘Culture relates to the informal aspects of organisations rather than their
official elements. They focus on the values, beliefs and norms of
individuals in the organisation and how they coalesce into shared
meanings. Culture is manifested by symbols and rituals’ (Bush and
Middlewood 2005: 47).
The culture of a school may not facilitate school improvement and may serve to
inhibit change. One of the most difficult tasks of a change agent, is to encourage
stakeholders to understand the school's culture and the way in which it may be
counter-productive to effective schooling. An established culture often involves
long-held beliefs and values, levels of comfort and resistance to change.
One of the distinctive features of South African schools is that principals, other
managers and HoDs often remain in the same school for many years. This gives
them familiarity with the context but also means that they are not exposed to
ideas from other schools. Bush, Joubert, Kiggundu and Van Rooyen’s (2008)
research in Mpumalanga and Limpopo shows that staff are often in the same
school for more than twenty years.
‘Most staff are highly experienced with many years as leaders or
educators in the case study school. Such experience is valuable in
providing deep understanding of the school and its context but it is
evident that it also contributes to a lack of innovation and to a certain
fatalism about the academic prospects for learners in these schools’ (Ibid:
43).
Bush et al (2008: 82) add that ‘there is little evidence of a structured approach to
the management of teaching and learning’ in these schools. They also note that
some of their case study schools are still not teaching according to the
requirements of the National Curriculum Statement (NCS), several years after it
was introduced, suggesting a culture of non-compliance.
Dimmock and Walker (2002) distinguish between societal and organisational

culture:
‘Societal cultures differ mostly at the level of basic values, while
organisational cultures differ mostly at the level of more superficial
practices, as reflected in the recognition of particular symbols, heroes and
rituals. This allows organisational cultures to be deliberately managed and
changed, whereas societal or national cultures are more enduring and
change only gradually over longer time periods’ (Ibid: 71).
Because of the legal separation of communities in the Apartheid era, South Africa
has many societal cultures, reflected for example in the eleven official languages.
These cultures have changed little since the first democratic elections in 1994.
School cultures change more readily than societal cultures but such
transformation remains difficult, particularly where, as noted above, staff work in
the same school for many years. Bush and Middlewood (2005: 55) refer to the
appointment of new staff as a way of shaping culture but add that ‘the
established staff, and inertia, may still ensure that change is highly problematic’.
Barriers to change include:
 Staff wanting top-down change and not ‘ownership’.
 ‘We’ve always done it this way’.
 Individual reluctance to challenge the prevailing culture.
 Staff blaming children’s home background for examination failure.
 Personality clashes, personal agendas and fractured interpersonal
relationships.
(Reynolds 1996: 153-154).
Reflect on the barriers to change identified by Reynolds. Which of these

1f factors are relevant in your school? What can you do to overcome such
barriers? Enter these problems, and your possible solutions, in your journal.
± 30 m in
Top down change is an endemic feature of South African education. National

and provincial departments promulgate change, which is passed down to
schools for implementation. Many principals, managers and educators now
accept this as ‘normal’ and find it difficult to innovate. Change is also inhibited
by people who are comfortable with working in a particular way and find
innovation threatening. Even staff open to innovation are reluctant to upset
colleagues by demanding change.
Bush et al (2008) found widespread evidence of educators, HoDs and

principals blaming learners, their parents, and their difficult home backgrounds,
for poor results in their eight township and rural schools. They also report that
fractured interpersonal relationships often make effective team work impossible.
Overcoming such attitudes has to begin with you! Examine your own values
and think what could be done to improve your school, and learner outcomes.
When you have done this, consider how best to influence your colleagues to
accept,
and even welcome, change. There are three circumstances in which culture may
be subject to rapid change:
When the school faces a crisis, such as very bad results, falling learner
numbers or a bad inspection report.
 When the leader is charismatic, commanding trust, loyalty and
commitment.
 When the principal succeeds a very poor leader. Staff will be
looking for a
new sense of direction.
(Adapted from Hargreaves 1999: 59-60).
Because South African principals often serve the same schools for several
decades, the third bullet point may not apply, and not every leader can be
charismatic. Bush et al (2008) report that a ‘crisis’ at their school B, falling matric
results and provincial DoE intervention, led to the acceptance of a classroom

observation programme that had been previously rejected by educators.
1.5.1 Defining a ‘learning culture’

Every learning organization has its way of operating which impacts on the identity
of the school. The order of the school, the management style and the appearance
says a lot about the culture of the school. You could call these the ‘artefacts’, or
clues, about the school's culture. They could have to do with noise level, with
punctuality, with lesson preparation, with uniform, with the state of repair of the
school, with the vision and mission of the school, and so on. They are observable
signs of the school's way of life. You need to be very careful not to jump to
conclusions about these artefacts. Just because there is a constant buzz of
talking from classrooms does not mean that there is no discipline. Your
interpretations need to be based on careful observation.
The management and leadership staff and structures in a school need to nurture
and facilitate a culture of learning. Establishing a general learning culture is
essential to the transformation of the school into a learning organisation.
AIM: To determ ine the prevailing culture in yourschool

1g
Distribute the following questionnaire among 5 staff members to complete.
You, as leader, should also complete the questionnaire. When you have
completed it, each person should calculate a score for sociability and solidarity.
Following the investigation, call a meeting with the five other respondents to
‚ 60 min consider the results. Write a short report in which you include an action plan to
improve the culture of your school.
Judge the following in terms of the situation in LOW MED HIGH

your school 1 2 3
SOCIABILITY
People try to make friends and keep their relationships strong
People get along very well
Our group often socialise outside the work place
People here really like one another
When people leave our group, we try to stay in touch
People do favours for others because they like each other

The people in the group often confide in one another about
personal matters
SCORES
SOLIDARITY
The staff of our school understands and shares the same
objectives
Work gets done effectively and productively

Judge the following in term s ofthe situation in LOW M ED HIGH

1 2 3
y o u r s c h o ol
The management of our school takes strong action to address
poor performance
Our collective will to win is high

When opportunities for new challenges and advantage arise, we
move quickly to capitalize on them
We share the same strategic goals
We know who the competition is.
SCORES
High scores (14+) are an indication of a positive culture where staff maintain
good relationships and work collectively to improve the school. Low scores (10)
suggest a negative culture, where relationships are moderate or weak, and
staff do not work collectively to improve the school. If the six responses vary
significantly, this might be an indication of sociability and/or solidarity varying in
different parts of the school or be a product of varying, and perhaps conflicting,
sub-cultures based on departments or learning phases. Such differences might
also lead to ‘within-school variation’ in learner outcomes (see unit 3).
Whatever the outcomes, staff need to work collectively to maintain or enhance
the school’s culture.
1.5.2 Being responsible for creating a learning culture in a school

The principal is responsible for building a culture of mutual respect, collaboration,
trust and shared responsibility and for developing and supporting school
communities of practice for continuous learning. South Africa is faced with
transformation issues such as the Language of Learning and Teaching (LOLT),
and Religion in Education policy requirements, which are directly affecting
schools. The parents through the SGB decide upon the LOLT and other issues,
and it is the duty of the principal to encourage SGBs to be familiar with the
Departments’ policies.
Bush and Glover (2008) say that producing profound changes in teaching and
learning requires a cultural shift so that all school stakeholders understand the
reasons for such changes. Southworth (2004: 85) stresses that ‘the kind of
culture we need in schools today’ is characterised by collaboration and shared
leadership. Successful learning cultures feature professional dialogue, with
teachers and school leaders sharing their experiences, within and beyond their
classrooms.
Within South Africa, Motala and Pampallis (2001: 75) stress the need to
‘foreground teaching and learning’. They add that:
‘The achievement of a quality education continues to be an enormous
challenge in South Africa. The restoration of a culture of teaching and
learning becomes increasingly urgent’ (p.76).
Deventer and Kruger (2003) write that one of the major problems facing principals
is the creation of a sound culture of teaching and learning in which effective
teaching can take place. Based on research in two schools, they argue that lack
of discipline, low educator morale and other educational problems contribute to
poor matric results and other weak educational outcomes.
Coleman (2003: 145) considers the importance of developing supportive cultures

for teaching and learning. ‘Promoting effective learning and teaching and
encouraging a culture of learning have wide implications for those involved in the
management of schools. These include specific aspects of staff development, for
example, examining the nature of learning and the range of learning styles and
considering what these mean for classroom teachers and their teaching styles’.
Motshana (2004) carried out a survey of educators in the Mpumalanga province.

He concludes that effectiveness depends on positive school climate and school
culture. This means the ways in which schools determine and manage
relationships between teachers and learners, and the impact that this has on the
practices within the organisation and the ‘way we do things here’.
Changing school culture has to be a deliberate process, intended to achieve
specific results such as enhanced learner outcomes. Culture is usually deeply
embedded and is difficult to shift. As we noted above, most South African
educators have substantial experience in the same school and are used to
working in a certain way. It often takes an external stimulus or threat to produce
new patterns of working (see Hargreaves’ comments above).
1.5.3 Leading the schoolas context and workplace

The school as a workplace has certain distinctive characteristics. The educator’s
“clients” are the learners; but, unlike the clients of most professionals, they are
learners that are forced to be in attendance in large groups (rather than as
individuals) while under the professional control of the educator over an extended
period.
Another distinctive feature of teaching is that the goals are broad and diverse and
capable of being addressed in different ways. The goals that society expects of
education, or that educators set for themselves, including the need to maximise
the full potential of all learners, are seldom fully achievable. Therefore, in a sense,
the educator’s work is seldom done and his/her professional competence may be
difficult to assess.
The school as a workplace has undergone considerable changes. It has become a

much more open system, that is, its internal activities are more directly shaped
by its environment. As a result of social and political change, the environment has
become much more challenging. The school increasingly has to justify its place in
society and account for the resources that it consumes. The educator’s role has
undergone a similar change as a result of the greater influence of factors outside
the school on what happens in individual schools and classrooms.
1.6 Developing plans to m anage and lead

School improvement plans, or development plans, generally include a sequence
of activities beginning with a needs assessment or situational analysis, followed
by planning, implementation or action, and evaluation, leading to a further
development cycle.
ESTABLISHING SCHOOL NEEDS COLLABORATIVELY

1a Answer the questions in the checklist below (table 2). Think in all cases about
your own school. As an individual, reflect on the picture that emerges. Try to be
as objective and honest in your responses to the checklist as you can.
± 60 m in
TABLE 2:NEEDS ANALYSIS FOR W AYS OF LEADING AND M ANAGING (ADAPTED FRO M
EM ERGING LEADERSHIP PRACTICES (2001),STINNETTE,L.J AND PETERSON,K.)
W AYS OF LEADING AND M ANAGING ALW AYS O FTEN SO M E- NEVER STEPS FO R

TIM ES IM PRO VEM ENT
(3) (2) (1) (0)
Do we (as SMT 2 ) articulate our shared purpose

and vision of learning?
Do we protect a learning vision and make it

visible?
Do we communicate our values and mission in

the things we do, how we spend our time, and
what we consider important?
Do we all take collective responsibility for

school practices, safety, health, and discipline?
Do we embody “power through” (no “power

over” people)?
Do we use (a) alternative punishment (not

corporal/body punishment) and (b) positive
rewards?
Do we facilitate, guide, and/or coach others to

adopt practices that advance the performance
of our learners (academic and social)?
Do we provide social support for high

achievement (learners, staff)?
Do we communicate a passion for learning

(and challenge ineffective practices)?
2 SM T m eans SchoolM anagem entTeam


(3) (2) (1) (0)
Do w e supportresearch-based risk-taking and

innovative practices?
Do w e have discussions and inquiry about

practices?
Do w e share inform ation and research?
Do w e attem ptto solve problem s

collaboratively/together?
Do w e use m ultiple approaches and solutions
orrely on single answ ers from pastpractices?
Do w e considera variety ofpoints ofview for

solving im portantproblem s?
Do w e m ake decisions thatare consensualand
inclusive?
Do w e provide form aland inform alw ays for

stafforlearners to raise and/orsolve problem s?
Do w e ensure an accepted learning system to

m ake learning focussed and clear?
Do w e expectteachers to keep the focus on

learning?)
Do learners acquire essentialskills and
know ledge atsufficiently high levels?
Do w e engage learners actively in sense-

m aking events?
Do classroom practices develop values,
thinking skills and appropriate m em orization of
concepts and skill?
Do classroom practices provide opportunities to

apply and use know ledge in a variety of
contexts?
Do w e supportlearners to be responsible for
theirow n learning outcom es?
Do w e use a variety oflearning experiences

and styles (such as cooperative/group learning
and independentw ork,w ith orw ithout
com petition)?
Do w e have interdisciplinary learning in the
curriculum ?
Do learning experiences in ourschool

incorporate out-of-class resources (from visits,
trips,experiences,practicalw ork,the Internet,

(3) (2) (1) (0)
business)?
Do w e find the tim e,resources,and support

forprofessionaldevelopm entto im prove our
teaching and learning?
Do w e share ournew learning,successes,and
failures (m odellife-long learning)?
This exercise provides a valuable means of establishing the school’s current

position, prior to introducing change. If your responses are mostly negative, you
have to think about how you will be able to introduce and sustain innovation to
bring about improvement. Asking other managers and your educators to
complete the exercise too would be a helpful starting point. Schools operate in
different contexts and different people interpret the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats of this context differently.
1.7 Concluding rem arks

In this unitw e explored the notion ofthe schoolas a learning organisation
prom oting a learning culture.By reflecting on ourow n experiences,w e realised
thatstaffw illneed supportin developing the kind ofcriticalreflection thatm akes
ongoing professionallearning possible.W e suggested thatstaffm eetings should
focus as m uch on key learning and teaching issues as they do on adm inistrative
m atters.How ever,as w e have seen,there are m any otherfactors thathave an
im pacton the quality ofteaching and learning in a schooland w hich need to be
m anaged.
The notion ofthe schoolas a learning organization constantly engaged in

critical reflection on its practices and achievem ents is as im portantin the
supporting ele m ents as itis in the centralprocesses ofteachin g and learning.
 In orderto continue to be relevanta nd to develop,the schoolneeds to

becom e a learning organisation.
 This m eans developing a learning culture and thatpresents particular
challenges w hen w orking w ith experienced professionals.
 W e looked atthe nature ofthe schoolas a w orkplace and the tension
betw een professionaland organisationalneeds.
 W e considered the notion ofdistributed leadership and how m anagem
ent
has becom e a shared activity.
 W e observed thatschools and classroom s are m uch m ore open than in
the pastand increasingly need to be able to accountforthe
resources th a t t h e y u s e .
 Finally,w e em phasized the need forcontinuous conversation and the
asking ofcriticalquestions aboutcore teaching and learning issues.
Unit 2:Plan and
Plan and im plem ent
a curriculum
Introduction
Learning outcom es 2.1
The concept ofcurriculum
2.2.1 Differentconceptions ofcurriculu m
2.2.2 Curriculu m delivery
2.2
The im pact oforganisationalstructure on
curriculum delivery 2.3
An overview ofthe NationalCurriculum
Statem ent for Schools (NCS) 2.4
Curriculum data collection and m anagem ent
2.5.1 Benchm arking
2.5.2 Lear n er records a n d reportin g 2.5
2.5.3 Analysin g and interpreting data
Learning and teaching support m aterials

(LTSM s)
2.6.1 Choosing,ordering and tracking LT SM s
2.6
2.6.2 Delivery,distributio n a n d retrieval
2.6.3 Towards a schoolpolicy fram ework and process
Concluding rem arks on Unit 2 2.7

Plan and im plem ent a
curriculum
2.1 Introduction
Unit 1 dealt with general teaching and learning management issues, with a major
focus on how our understanding of learning impacts on how we teach and how
we manage teachers. We also examined the cultural factors underpinning the
management of teaching and learning. In this unit, we focus on the curriculum
and how it needs to be managed.
Unit 2 com prises five sections as follows:

 The concept of curriculum (national and international perspective on
curriculum management), the aims and values underpinning it,
the school environment, learning teams for curriculum implementation
(Whose curriculum gets into the classroom? The hidden curriculum.)
 The impact of organisational structures and procedures on curriculum
delivery at classroom level
 An overview of the NCS
 Curriculum data collection and management (Benchmarking, Learner
records (and reporting)). Analysing and interpreting data on the curriculum.
 Learning and Teaching Support Materials (LTSMs).
Learning outcom es
By the end of this unit you should be able to do the following:
 Demonstrate the understanding to manage a process for planning teaching
and learning that promotes responsive, effective and creative
approaches and is in line with National policy
 Understand how to deploy staff for teaching and learning based on sound
pedagogical and human resource principles
 Understand the main principles and content of the NCS
 Show ability to manage the development of timetables that ensure
effective
use of time and support the goals of the curriculum
 Show understanding of how to manage learner assessment ethically and
fairly, and in a manner that links curriculum and assessment
policies effectively
 Ensure that detailed records and (reports) of learners’ work and
performance are maintained, analysed and used for planning, problem
solving and development
 Explain how to develop and manage strategies to ensure that all learners,
whatever their background or special needs, are supported to
achieve their potential
 Manage co- and extra-curricular activities in ways that involve and motivate
staff and ensure that learners receive a rounded educational experience
 Prioritise,im plem entand m onitorthe deploym entofphysicaland financial

resources forthe delivery ofteaching and learning based on agreed
principles
 Justify the teaching practices atyourschoolin relation to learning theory.
Recom m ended readings:

NCS policy docum ents.
Hoadley,U & Jansen,J.w ith Gultig,J.& Adendorff,M .
(Eds)2002.Curriculu m : from Plans to Practices.Learning Guide and
Reader.Cape Tow n:OUP/Saide.(A new edition should becom e available during
2009.)
M oll,I.,Bradbury,J.,W inkler,G.w ith Tshule,M .Van Voore,M .,Slonim
sky,L. and Gultig,J.(Ed).2001.Learners and Learning.Learning Guide and
Reader. Cape Tow n:OUP/Saide.(see w w w .saide.org.za )
CURRICULUM AS PLAN AND PRACTICE

2a Read the case study and then answ erthe questions.This activity w illprepare
you forthe ideas discussed in this unit.
1. W hatis the form alcurriculum offered in the foundation and interm ediate
phases atM bew u and is itappropriate?
± 45 m in 2. According to these records,w hatis the m ain criterion forprom otion in
the foundation phase atM bew u? Is itappropriate?
3. Is the overallperform ance in the foundation phase im proving,declining
orstaying aboutthe s a m e?
4. Com pare the Grade 3 prom otion figures and the Grade 6 enrolm ent
figures and com m enton anything thatstrikes you aboutthese figures.
5. Com m enton the perform ance trends in the interm ediate phase at
M bew u.W hatare the key problem areas and w hatdo you think
could
be done aboutth e m ?
6. Is M bew u perform ing adequately? W hy do you say this?
7. W hatrecom m endations w ould you m ake to M s Setlhako on the basis of
the evidence presented in this case study?
Case study
M s Setlhako,the principalofM bew u school,w as w orried.Allherteachers had
now been through NCS training and the schoolhad setup curriculum planning
team s.M ostofthese team s w ere functioning,although there stillseem ed to be
som e problem s betw een the Grade 5 teachers,Nono and Rachel,and the new
teacher,M rVan derM erw e,w as stillsettling into the schooland som etim es
ruffling a few feathers in the process.
Despite the com m on curriculum and training and the increasing use ofteam
planning,w hatw as actually happening in the classroom seem ed to vary
considerably from teacherto teacher.Som e classroom s stillseem ed to operate
on very traditionallines w ith desks in row s,a lotoftextbook-based individual
w ork and very little studentw ork on display w hile otherclassroom s seem ed
designed forgroup w ork w ith the w alls covered in posters,new spapercuttings
and studentw ork.Som e classroom s w ere often very quietw hile others w ere
often very noisy and attim es appeared chaotic.There also seem ed a lotof
UNIT TW O | PLAN AND IM PLEM ENT A CURRICULUM | 39 |
inconsistency about assessment. Som e teachers seemed to set homework tasks

almost every day and had assessment records with literally pages of marks for
each learner and other teachers seemed rarely to set homework and it was
difficult to see how they came to the conclusions they did in learner reports
based on the 2 or 3 marks and comments in their assessment records. She had
also noted that Rachel tended to assess performances in a narrow range focused
on Moderately Achieved to Achieved whereas Nono tended to cover the full
spectrum of achievement.
Ms Setlhako was also worried about the overall performance of the school.
After considering the school’s overall performance for the past three years, she
could not decide whether things were getting better or not. She decided that she
needed to put a team together to analyse the school’s performance and make
substantive recommendations for improvement with clear goals for the next
three years.
The school’s overall performance at two key exit points is summarised in the
following table:
M bewu School
Grade/learning area 2004 2005 2 0 06
Grade 3 enrolm ent 160 174 183

Literacy O: 1 7 O: 1 8 O: 11
A: 80 A: 75 A: 77
PA: 47 PA: 55 PA: 64
NA: 16 NA: 26 NA: 31
Numeracy O: 1 0 O: 11 O: 11
A: 35 A: 35 A: 37
PA: 63 PA: 70 PA: 104
NA: 52 NA: 58 NA: 31
Life skills O: 33 O: 36 O: 4 9
A: 102 A: 107 A: 105
PA: 18 PA: 19 PA: 15
NA: 7 NA: 12 NA: 14
Overall promotion 144 148 152

Overall retention 16 26 31
Grade 6 enrolm ent 124 126 130

Language (HL) 120/124 MA+ 121/126 MA+ 124/130 MA+
Language FAL/LOLT 92/124 MA+ 93/126 MA+ 98/130 MA+

Mathematics 54/124 MA+ 48/126 MA+ 65/130 MA+
Natural Sciences and Technology 52/124 MA+ 50/126 MA+ 63/130 MA+
Social Sciences and EMS 98/124 MA+ 115/126 MA+ 119/130 MA+
Life orientation and Arts and Culture 116/124 MA+ 120/126 MA+ 122/130 MA+
Key:O = Outstanding;A = Achieved;PA = Partially achieved;NA = Notachieved

and M A = M oderate achievem ent
The foundation phase curriculum comprises three learning programmes –

literacy, numeracy and life skills – while the intermediate phase programme
consists of six learning programmes in which languages and mathematics are
treated separately and the other three learning programmes comprise
combinations of learning areas. This is in line with the 2002 policy document.
Given the limited classroom space and staffing at Mbewu, combining learning
areas seems to be an appropriate strategy.
We note from the table that Mbewu seems to make literacy the sole basis for
promotion, as the retention figures exactly reflect the NA figures for that
learning programme. At Mbewu, learners would seem to be promoted even
though they might not have achieved at the required level in the other two
learning programmes. This raises questions about the interventions made in
earlier grades, as it became apparent that some learners were not achieving
well, and the remedial support offered after promotion to try to address the
outstanding gaps. It also raises questions about the evidence on which these
decisions are based. Mbewu will need to keep a close eye on national and
provincial developments and guidelines regarding assessment and promotion.
Performance in the foundation phase is declining as a larger proportion of
learners each year is getting a partial or ‘not achieved’ rating. It should be noted
that overall enrolment has increased each year despite the fact that the school
has inadequate classroom space.
The increasing overcrowding of the classrooms may well be a key contributing

factor to the declining performance in the foundation phase.
The figures for learners completing Grades 3 and 6 are quite similar. Unless
Mbewu has a significant enrolment from other schools, this could indicate that
the school is effective at retaining its learners despite the challenges that it
faces.
The proportion of learners achieving moderately or above is fairly consistent

from year to year. Mathematics and the combined Natural Sciences and
Technology are clearly key problem areas for Mbewu to address. A more
detailed analysis of assessment records could indicate specific concepts or
Assessment Standards that are proving problematic and these could be the
focus of a more intensive planning effort within the school and, perhaps, the
focus of possible inter-school support within the cluster.
Ideally, of course, we would like to see all learners being successful and
achieving the required Learning Outcomes and Assessment Standards. Where
this is not the case, we would want to see that schools are identifying the
problem areas, setting themselves reasonable improvement targets,
implementing new strategies, and monitoring and evaluating these
interventions on a continuous basis. This is a critical aspect of managing
teaching and learning and explains why the school needs to have a dedicated
School Assessment Team and why the promotion of continuous professional
development should be a key focus of the School Development Team.

The fact that the school’s overall performance in the foundation phase is
declining, and that there is no evidence of improvement in the intermediate
phase over the three years for which figures are available, suggests that Ms
Setlhako has good reason to be concerned. The fact that she has recognised
this for herself is a very encouraging sign. Her idea of establishing a team to
undertake a more thorough investigation is a good one. She needs a more
detailed and systematic analysis of the trends and she needs to be able to
identify the key problem areas so that these can be addressed in the school’s
improvement planning. Some benchmarking against the performance of other
similarly positioned schools in the cluster would help the Mbewu team to set
themselves realistic improvement targets and timeframes.
As Ms Setlkako has observed, the curriculum as planned and what actually

happens in practice do not necessarily correspond.
2.2 The concept ofcurriculum
2.2.1 Different conceptions ofcurriculum

There are different ways of looking at curriculum as a concept. Here are some of
them:
 Curriculum as plan
 Curriculum as practice
 Curriculum as social construct.
Curriculum as Plan: In this case, curriculum is seen as a docum entor a

blueprint for teaching. It can be referred to as a ‘syllabus’ if it includes in detail
the content to be taught, how it should be presented (methodology) and how it
should be assessed. It is also known as the officialcurriculum, the form
alcurriculum or the intended curriculum. A syllabus approach to curriculum
planning tends to be associated with a transmission type, content-focused
approach. However, the NCS is an official, formal curriculum plan that is not
based on what we would normally refer to as a ‘syllabus’, nor is it merely a rigid
‘blueprint’ as a lot of scope is created for different approaches, and even different
content.
Curriculum
Here as Practice:
the emphasis is shifted from w hatis intended to w hatactually happens.
The focus here is on the experiences of both the teacher and the learner. The
curriculum as practice may also be known as the experienced curriculum , the
actualcurriculum or the im plem ented curriculum .
Curriculum as SocialConstruct:
The key idea here is that a curriculum is constructed by certain people within a
society, who have a particular ideology (set of beliefs and values). The curriculum
states what knowledge, skills and values these people believe are important for
the learners in that society to acquire. So we can think of this as a generally
shared understanding of what a curriculum might be, for example learner-centred,
outcomes-based and value-driven.
The NCS is provided as a basis for curriculum transformation and development in

line with the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act No 108 of
1996). This curriculum that has been adopted seeks to embody the values set out
in the Constitution in the knowledge and skills it develops. The Constitution
expresses the nation’s social values and its expectations of the roles, rights and
responsibilities of citizens in a democratic South Africa. The Bill of Rights that
forms part of the Constitution places pre-eminent value on equity, human dignity,
quality of life, freedom and security of persons.
All learners, together with their teachers, are encouraged to have understanding
and awareness of the nation’s cultural diversity, beliefs and worldviews within
which the country’s unity is manifested.
The NCS can usefully be thought of in terms of all three curriculum perspectives
discussed: with regard to the curriculum as plan we will be concerned with how
and what teachers plan to do; as practice we will be concerned with how plans
actually manifest themselves in the classroom (is it a problem if teachers use
different strategies in trying to achieve the same outcomes?); as a construct we
will be interested in comparing what we are doing with what other schools are
doing and the possibilities of learning from one another. With the need to
develop, implement and evaluate the school’s curriculum within the framework of
the NCS, school managers will need to ensure that sufficient time and other
resources are made available and that discussion and constructive debate are
encouraged.
2.2.2 Curriculum delivery

Managing teaching and learning is partly about curriculum delivery. But what do
we understand by the notion of curriculum in the context of a school?
There are different expositions about the meaning of the concept ‘curriculum’.
Ashley (1989) says that curriculum refers to the planned and organised activities
learners experience in school. He goes on to say that the concept includes the
subject matter learners are exposed to, as well as the methods of teaching and
evaluation. These follow closely from aims and differing beliefs and values about
the purpose of schooling and lead to the selection of different subject matter,
teaching styles and modes of evaluation.
Curriculum can also be defined as everything planned by teachers that helps

develop the learner. This can be an extra-mural sporting activity, a debate or even
an educational tour. It can even be defined as all the experiences that a learner
has at school, both inside and outside the classroom.
In its Policy Fram ew ork forEducation and Training,the African National Congress
(ANC 1994) states that curriculum should be understood to be m ore than syllabus
docum entation. It refers to allteaching and learning activities that take place in
learning institutions. It includes aims and objectives of education, what is taught,
how it is arranged into subjects, skills and processes that are included, strategies
of teaching and learning, forms of assessment; how curriculum is serviced and
resourced; how curriculum reflects the needs and interests of those it serves,
including learners, teachers, the community, the nation, the employers and the
economy (ANC, 1994).
Just like the birth of the new non-racial democratic South Africa, the new
education curriculum is a product of long critical debates and negotiations. Our
newly elected government opted for the transformational Outcomes-Based
Education (OBE) approach to curriculum development (Fiske and Ladd, 2004). In
this approach none of the existing curriculum and schooling is taken as given and
nothing is untouchable. The outcomes are constructed in terms of genuine roles
that competent citizens must fulfil in real life (Maree and Fraser, 2004).
The new curriculum is deliberately and overtly transformational and promotes

nation building. This is understandable because the struggle over education in the
seventies and eighties was inextricably linked to the struggle to transform South
African society. The question is, in what way is the new curriculum
transformational?
W e shallcom e back to this question w hen w e look atthe principles thatunderpin

the NationalCurriculu m State m entlater.H o w ever,itshould be clearthatas the
nature ofthe curriculu m has changed this presents particularchallenges forhow
the curriculum needs to be m anaged and led.
2.3 The im pact oforganisationalstructure on

curriculum delivery
Schools,especially secondary schools,have m any bureaucratic features
(Bush 2003).The m anagem entresponsibilities in a schoolare usually arranged
hierarchically w ith the principal,the deputy principaland heads-of-departm ent
occupying m anagerialpositions.Togetherthey constitute w hatis know n as the
SchoolM anagem entTeam (SM T).W hen w e speak ofschoolorganisation
structure,syste m s and procedures,w e usually think aboutpositions and
hierarchies.In this sense bureaucracy in schools m eans organisation and lines of
authority.Bush (2003)notes thatstructure m ay be lateralas w ellas verticaland
thata schoolcom m itted to participatory decision-m aking w ould stress horizontal
as w ellas verticalcom m unication channels,betw een the principals,the entire
staff,learners and parents.Italso includes the w ay decisions are m ade.The key
value thatkeeps the structures and procedures w orking is accountability.Being
accountable m eans thata person is able to explain w hy s/he did som ething and
to take responsibility forthese actions.This hierarchy m ay be flattened by
encouraging educators to assum e leadership in differentaspects ofteaching and
learning.This links to the conceptofteacherleadership discussed in unitone.
The principalneeds to establish an overallenvironm entconducive to appropriate
curriculum m anagem entand leadership,and the Head ofDepartm ent(HoD)w ill
provide curriculum leadership in a particulardiscipline.Itis
conceivable,how ever, thatin som e curriculu m planning situations,a teachercould
be leading a process in w hich the principalis a follow er.Forexam ple,a principalm
ay teach
m athem atics.Forthis purpose,s/he is accountable to the HoD.This m
eans turning the traditionalhierarchy on its head,and thatcalls fora very
differentkind ofleader/m anager.
The possible benefits oftrying outthese strategies include increased self-

w orth
am ong staffm em bers,greatercom m itm ent,a fairerdistribution ofthe w orkload,
greatercapacity forinnovation and opportunities to explore vision and values.
The m ore fluid structure envisaged by the discussion above also provides
the clim ate forteam s to flourish.These include the SM T,a SchoolAssessm
entTeam and Phase/Subject/Learning Area Team s.Such team s provide
opportunities for
educators to engage w ith one anotherand form em bers to m ove betw
een team s, recognising professionalism w hile stillensuring accountability.
2.4 An overview ofthe NationalCurriculum

Statem ent for Schools (NCS)
The dawn of the new non-racial democratic South Africa necessitated the
overhaul and transformation of the education system. The debates over what the
extent and nature of the changes would be stretched from the 1980s up to 1997,
when the Council of Education Ministers decided to embrace Outcomes-Based
Education (OBE) as the guiding principle for a new school curriculum in South
Africa.
Rhodes and Brundrett (in press) distinguish between teacher-centred and

pupil- centred approaches to learning. Hargreaves (2005) points to the
predominance of teacher-centred, or transmissive, approaches. These tend to
dominate because:
 They fit existing frameworks, replicating teachers’ own experience.
 They fit well with accountability systems based on outputs.
 They present fewer organisational problems because they are hierarchical in
nature.
 They are ‘tidier’ than more creative approaches.
 They maintain a power status relationship between teacher and taught.
 They maintain a knowledge apprenticeship approach sustaining teacher
authority.
 They are organisationally predictable – if we change the time allocated then
results will improve.
By contrast, learner-centred or experiential learning is more difficult

to manage, requires much more understanding of learning methods, is more
difficult to
assess and frequently offers challenges to those who are teaching. This leads to
the necessity for teachers to understand the ways in which students learn.
South Africa’s National Curriculum Statement (NCS) may be

regarded as an example of an experiential or learner-centred approach to learning.
One of its central principles is ‘outcomes based education’:
‘The philosophy of outcomes-based education remains the foundation of our
curriculum. Outcomes-based education starts by designing the outcomes to be
achieved by the end of the educational process. The outcomes describe the
knowledge, skills and values learners should acquire and demonstrate during
the learning experience’.
(www.mml.co.za/revised_national_curriculum_statement.htm)
Fiske and Ladd (2004) say that OBE is, in essence, an instruction
method in
which curriculum planners define the general knowledge, skills and values that
learners should achieve. This process of curriculum development culminated in
the pronouncement of Curriculum 2005 as policy in 1997.
Following the problems encountered by teachers in implementing the

new curriculum, the Ministry of Education commissioned a review of Curriculum
2005 in 2000. The review was followed by the development of the Revised
National Curriculum Statement for Grades R – 9 (RNCS) which was approved as
2002. However, the school curriculum reform process would not be complete
until curriculum reform had been extended to the Further Education and Training
Band (FET Band). This logical step was taken and the process of developing
subject statements for Grades 10-12 was completed early in 2005. Thus the new
curriculum for South African schools (Grades R to 12) is now in place as the
NationalCurriculum Statem ent(NCS).
The challenge facing schools is how to implement the plan. The crucial question
is whether schools are ready in terms of teacher knowledge, competence and
resources and whether school leaders are sufficiently knowledgeable to lead the
process.
HOW W ELL DO YOU KNOW THE NCS?

2b
So how well do you as a school principal, or potential principal, know the NCS.
Try the following fun quiz. The answers are shown at the end of the quiz, but
don’t cheat!
± 15 m in 1) Which of the following is NOT a design feature of the NCS?

a) Critical and developmental outcomes
b) Specific outcomes
c) Learning outcomes
d) Assessment standards.
2) Which two design features are common to all subjects and learning
areas?
3) Which design feature is common to all grades?
4) Which design feature is specific to a grade?
5) Write down one Critical Outcome.
6) How many Learning Areas make up the NCS (Grades R – 9)?
7) Life Orientation is part of which competence area in the new National
Senior
Certificate (NSC)?
a) Section A only
b) Section B only
c) Section A and B
d) None of the above.
8) The NCS adopts the following approach to Languages in the curriculum:
a) Mono-lingualism
b) Additive bi-lingualism
c) Additive multi-lingualism
d) Multi-lingualism.
9) Who must decide on the language of learning and teaching in a school
according to the NCS and SASA?
10)At what levels are the South African languages offered?
11)What is the minimum number of languages required in different phases?
12)Which of the following is NOT a key principle of South Africa’s version of
OBE?
a) Clarity of focus.
b) Group work
c) Design down
d) High expectations
e) Expanded opportunities.
13)Integration and applied competence is one of the underpinning principles of

the NCS. Which of the following statements is FALSE?
a) Integration can be between subjects, but learners will usually be
assessed against the AS’s of the focus subject only in the foundation
phase.
b) Integration must happen at all levels in all subjects all the time.
c) Integration can happen by clustering Assessment Standards within
a
Learning Outcome or across Learning Outcomes of the same subject.
d) Integration means that two teachers can collaborate and assess
the same
piece of work using the Assessment Standards of two different subjects.
14)Which of the following sets of assessment terms address the
fundamental
question of WHY assess?
a) Rubrics, rating scales, checklists, observation sheets
b) Self-, peer-, teacher-, test-based, task-based assessment
c) Baseline, diagnostic, formative, summative
d) Norm- and criterion-referenced assessment.
15)Arrange the following planning tools in a logical sequence from the least
to
the most detailed:
Lesson plan; 2. Subject framework/ Learning Programme; 3. Work schedule;
a) 1, 2, 3,
b) 1, 3, 2,
c) 2, 3, 1
d) 3, 2, 1.
16)In budgeting for Learning and Teaching Support Materials, which of the
following receives priority?
a) Materials for educators
b) Supplementary enrichment materials
c) Materials for school management
d) Learner materials.
W e think thatthis is know ledge thatshould be second nature by now .Here

are the answ ers to the questions.Ho w w elldo you know the NCS?
1.B,2.Learning Outc om es and Assessm entStandards.3.Learning outc om

es. 4.Assessm entStandar ds.5.See Ch a pt er1 ofa ny Lear nin g A r e a orSubj ect
state m entforth e fulllistofcriticala n d devel o p m ental.6.8.7.A 8.C 9.S G B
10.Hom e Language,FirstAdditionalLanguage,Second AdditionalLanguage
11.Tw o HL and FAL 12.B 13.B 14.C 15.C 16.D
2.5 Curriculum data collection and m anagem ent

Good decision-making rests on reliable information. Listed below is some of the
information that the school must collect and analyse:
 Staff records that indicate post levels, experience, age and qualifications
 Registers of attendance
 Portfolios of teachers (for IQMS and SACE) and learners
 LTSMs status? numbers?
 School performance records and awards
 Assessment records and analyses of learner performance
 The staff development records and appraisals.
2.5.1 Benchm arking

Benchmarking can be done by comparing the performance of the school in
relation to the school’s results or the school’s income and expenditure (financial
bench marking) over time. Benchmarking may be defined as ‘an ideal standard
against which performance is measured’. What are the trends emerging and what
do these trends tell you about whether your school is improving or not?
Benchmarking should also be undertaken between schools. The purpose is not to

rank schools but rather for schools to see whether they are functioning optimally.
If your school’s performance is significantly different from that of other schools in
your cluster, who are working under similar circumstances to yours, then the
difference must be more to do with internal teaching and management than with
external influences. If your school performs below the average for your
community, then a review is required to see how you can improve to reach at
least this level, if not to outperform it.
In most high schools the benchmarking is mostly done with the ‘matriculants’.
Although this is sometimes seen to be encouraging competition between
learners and schools, it is actually helpful as a tool to aid the school
management’s reflection on their performance.
However, these comparative analyses should not be limited to Grade 12 classes

only. Class performance can also be compared in different years. It is a bit late to
try to put right in Grade 12 a problem that might well have been apparent from
Grade 10, or even in the primary school. In some cases there are issues of school
culture and/or practice that need action or development as a result of such
benchmarking.
In conclusion, the school principal must develop or maintain good working

relationships with some other schools in order to ensure effective teaching and
learning and optimal resource allocation in the school. This will help the school to
track its ongoing teaching and learning performance with the intention of
generating improvement.
The process of evaluating performance in order to improve learner outcomes is

discussed in unit 3.
2.5.2 Learner records and reporting

Read the story and answer the questions that follow.
2c
± 30 m in
Disruptive behaviour (S u n d a y W orl d n e w s p a p e r in S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 6 )

A school in Pretoria was accused of violating an eleven-year-old boy’s rights by
making him stay away from class. The school indicated to the media that the boy
had been very disruptive for a long time in the classroom and that his academic
performance was poor.
The parents demanded a professional opinion on the matter and the report was
that the boy was ‘normal’ and felt the isolation from the classroom badly. They
also claimed that the boy was performing adequately in his studies as per their
records. The school could not produce enough evidence to prove their case and
they were taken to task by the Department.
1. What do you think the school did not manage to do well enough in
dealing with the boy’s disruptive behaviour?
2. State some of the records that the school was supposed to produce.
3. As the principal of this school what could you do to improve the situation?
Given that we have already said that the whole rationale for a school is to
promote learning, the exclusion of a learner from the learning process must
surely be a last resort measure based on sound evidence that the learner’s
continued inclusion will be detrimental to him/herself or others. Clearly this
school did not have sufficient evidence to make such a decision.
Some schools are struggling with the storage of learners’ records, especially
the ones that are in rural and disadvantaged areas.
The school manager must make sure that the learners’ records are
controlled and maintained in a secure and tidy way. The National Protocol for
Assessment (remember to check for revisions of this policy) stresses that the
learner must have a learner profile and a learner portfolio that will be directly
controlled by
the class teacher in the Foundation Phase and a Learner Portfolio managed
by a Learning Area teacher in Intermediate Phase.
The learner profile will include a record of the promotion and/or retention of
learners. It will indicate the extended opportunities and the support that the
learner should be given. It is the responsibility of the principal to make sure
that, when the learner transfers to another school, his/her records are also
transferred to the new school. The school principal must also have records of
learners’ external support.
The principal must also know the school’s enrolment and have a record of each
learner in the school’s classrooms. The admission committee must liaise with
him/her. The gender balance at the school should also be one of the issues that
the principal considers when recruiting staff and admitting learners. The school
records include:
1. Class registers
2. Admission books
3. LTSMs records
4. Minutes of meetings that affect the learners
5. Log books
6. Permission books
7. Event record books
8. Portfolio guides for both learners and educators
9. Discipline files/ detention reports.
By having records in his/her office, and managing the processes, the

principal is able to account on behalf of the staff and the employer. For a
complete list of records that should be kept by the school, refer to the
Department’s ‘School Records Manual’ (DoE 2004).
Excel spreadsheets are an excellent way to set up record keeping and to

perform routine analyses. The Templates section contains a number of record
keeping and analysis templates recommended by the Department of Education.
2.5.3 Analysing and interpreting data

Obviously, well-managed information is useful only if it is used. The analysis and
interpretation of data can be helpful in informing the school principal of the gaps
and developmental needs of the school. It can also assist in reflecting upon the
management at the school. Teacher development and the methods that are used
at school can also be improved or maintained depending on the results of the
data analysis and the interpretation.
Schools must therefore have plans and programmes for school activities and files
where achievements are recorded or kept. The parents must also get reports
from the school about these intentions and achievements.
Concerning academic performance, the National Protocol on Assessment (DoE

2005) (check the DoE website for updates on this document) states that the
school must decide on the number and nature of reporting that has to be done. It
outlines the different approaches that the school can use to report to parents
about the learners’ performance. The final written reports are compulsory for
parents irrespective of other methods of reporting, such as school meetings, that
may be used.
The principal must manage all of this information by ensuring that plans are made
and executed on time for data analysis and interpretation. She/he must make
sure that the reports are analysed correctly according to policies like the language
policy, inclusive education, etc. and s/he must be able to justify the retention of a
learner where necessary.
She/he must have direct control of the learners’ profile and the transfer thereof to
another school in the case of a learner who has to be transferred. This will require
a well-organised and preferably digitised management information system.
Learner and assessment records are only two examples of the kind of record-
keeping that the school must manage. Another critical area for effective teaching
and learning is the management of learning and teaching support materials
(LTSMs).
2.6 Learning and teaching support m aterials

(LTSM s)
A school LTSM committee must be established in order to manage the following process
as spelled out in the Department of Education’s policy framework:
 Requisition
 Ordering
 Delivery
 Distribution
 Classroom Management
 Retrieval.
2.6.1 Choosing,ordering and tracking LTSM s

Schools must determine who or what is the most appropriate individual or team
to manage the process and inventory.
The main aim of having an inventory is to ensure that:

 Schools get the right items at the right time in proper quantities
 The school assets and equipment are properly recorded
 Adequate steps are in place clearly defining who is responsible for ordering
and at what time
 A physical check of all materials is undertaken annually and the results of
this check are reported to the school
 Appropriate procedures are in place to authorize the disposal of surplus
items and their removal from the record.
Selecting LTSM s
Issues to consider when prioritising:
 Give first priority to the learner material (rather than support or
management
material)
 Consider replacements of obsolete material and those that are considered
offensive and against the specifications of the constitution
 Consider curricular and methodology changes initiated at National
and
Provincial level e.g. change in set works
 Topping up of agreed upon titles for selected grades should be next in
priority
 Teachers should be consulted at all times.
Filling in the requisition form s

 In accordance with the needs identified by each teacher during the Needs
Analysis period, relevant material is selected from the viewed and
evaluated
materials
 Collate the needs of the various teachers according to priority of curriculum
requirements per grade/learning area
 Do requisition adjustments to reconcile with the school’s LTSMs budget
allocation (in consultation with all teachers)
 Finalize the requisitioning form
 M ake a copy ofthe requisition form before itis sentto the DistrictOffice.
GROUP DISCUSSION ON LEARNING RESOURCE PLANNING

2d
This activity is designed fordiscussion w ith otherm em bers ofthe SM T.
Briefly describe w ho is responsible forordering learnerm aterials in
yourschool.
1) W hen does yourschoolchoose and orderm aterials? D o you getyourorder
± 20 m in in tim e,as stipulated by the provincialDepartm entofEducation?
2) W hatare th e c onse que nce s o f :
a) Notordering m aterials in tim e?
b) Notordering accurately?
c) Not keepin g track ofyourorder?
3) W hatdoes yourschoolhave to change aboutits LT S M s ordering
practice?
2.6.2 Delivery,distribution and retrieval

LTSM sDelivery
 Reflecton the delivery ofLT S M s to yourschool.
 Did you receive LTSM s in tim e this year?Explain w hathappened.
 Ifnot,h ow did this affectteaching and learning?
 Has there been a change forthe betterin LT S M s delivery overthe last
few years? Explain.
 W hatfurtherim provem entw ould you like to see in the delivery of
LTSM s?
 W hatrecording syste m do you have forthe LT S M s thatgetdelivered to
you?
 Forsecurity reasons on receiving LTSM s w hatoughtto be done before
they are stored?
2.6.3 Towards a schoolpolicy fram ework and process

As indicated by the previous discussion in this section,the planning process for
LTSM s w illhave identified any resources thatteachers feelthatthey w illneed
and itw illbe necessary to ensure thatthere is sufficientbudgetary provision and
a policy regarding the selection and m anagem entofthese LTSM s once they have
been approved.Such a policy w illneed to address issues such as requisition,
ordering,delivery,distribution,classro om m anagem entand retrievalprocesses.
W e w illconsiderthe schoolpolicy fram ew ork firstand then suggestand explore

a selectio n process.
A SCHOOL POLICY ON M ANAGING LTSM S

2e
This provides you with an opportunity to reflect upon, and possibly improve,
your school’s management of its LTSMs.
Does your school have a policy on management of LTSMs? If yes, look at a

± 20 m in copy of the policy and write a short narrative account identifying a) the
strengths and weakness of the policy itself and b) strengths and weaknesses in
the implementation of the policy. If no, brainstorm for ideas on a) what such a
policy should address and b) how the implementation of the policy should be
managed.
Detailed in the box below are some suggested policy guidelines from the DoE
(2005b:93-95). Evaluate your own ideas (above) against the suggestions in the
box below and finalise your school’s policy framework for managing LTSMs.
Include this policy document in your portfolio of evidence.
The school should have an LTSM committee which should take

responsibility for the following activities:
Requisition process
 Ensure that there is ample storage space for LTSMs, taking into
account issues of stacking, racking and weight.
 Give due consideration to security, access procedures and
insurance.
 Conduct a needs analysis in consultation with all providers.
 Conduct a situational analysis to check what the school already
has to meet those requirements.
 Identify and list gaps in order of priority.
 Cost needs according to priorities after consultation with all
stakeholders.
 Ascertain if the allocated LTSMs budget is sufficient.
 Add additional funds generated by the school through fund-
raising if the budget is inadequate.
 Draft a proposed budget for consultation with parents through
the SGB.
 Present the budget to an open parents meeting as per SASA.
 Re-prioritise if necessary.
 Ensure that appropriate monitoring and reporting systems for
the entire budget are in place.
Issues to consider when prioritising

 First priority is to learner material and not educator support or
management material.
 The NCS implementing grades should always receive 100% of
their learner materials – or as much as the budget allows.
 Curricular changes, set works, especially matric set-works, must
be given priority.
 Replacements of obsolete and offensive materials should be a

matter of priority.
 Topping up of agreed titles for selected grades must be
considered.
 Schools in which there is a significant increase in enrolments
should consider the impact of this increase on the need for
LTSMs.
 Thereafter supplementary material and material for educators
should be considered if the budget allows for this.
Ordering process
Attend book exhibitions to identify the most suitable materials
for learners and teachers in each grade.
 Fill the requisition forms as per district directive and
according to
the latest catalogue.
 File Photostat copies of these forms for future reference.
 Ensure that these requisitions are captured on ACCPAC or
whatever accounting system the district/province prefers.
 Obtain a requisition number from the district office for
tracking
purposes.
Delivery process
 Decide who should receive materials delivered to the school.
 Ensure that a school stamp is available to this person.
 Ensure that a delivery schedule is available.
 Ensure that you have a system for recording the delivery of
material.
During delivery:
 Check that the items delivered are correct.
 Check that the quantity received is the quantity ordered and
matches the delivery note.
 If delivery could not be checked, the recipient should note
“Contents not checked” but should report discrepancies within
48 hours. It is important to check every book and not to
assume that because the top layer is correct, that the books at
the bottom are the same.
 If correct, the recipient should stamp the PoD (Proof of
Delivery), append a signature and keep a copy.
 A copy must be kept in the school’s files and a copy must be
forwarded to the district office to effect payment.
 All outstanding orders must be followed up with suppliers and
the district office.
Distribution process
 Use an appropriate distribution process i.e. via class teacher,
subject teacher or HoD.
 Ensure that effective systems are in place for distribution i.e.
stamping of books (at least 20 pages throughout the book and
the cover to discourage theft) with the school name and

acquisition numbers and recording of numbers against learners’
names to discourage theft and for reconciliation purposes.
 Arrange for the stamping of inside covers to record the name of
the recipient, the condition of the book and the year.
 Ensure that loan forms are issued to learners and that parents
acknowledge and sign these forms. Indicate to parents the
responsibility that accompanies the issuing of LTSMs to their
learners and the consequences of loss or damage. (Parents
must pay for or replace lost or damaged books.)
 Keep records of all LTSMs distributed per Learning
Area/Subject/Grade.
Retrievalprocess
 Ensure that all materials delivered during each financial
year are
available for use by newcomers the following year.
 Ensure that books retrieved are reconciled against books
distributed.
 Take appropriate action for loss of or damage to books.
 Adopt proper procedures for reporting on losses.
 Compile retrieval statistics and forward these to the District
Office.
 Initiate a stock taking process to ensure reconciliation.
 Take into consideration the ageing of books and write off books
which are unusable.
2.7 Concluding rem arks on Unit 2

In this unit, we have seen that curriculum is not a fixed concept. No matter how
detailed the plan, there are always variations in classroom practice. In addition,
the curriculum as actually experienced will be influenced by “hidden” factors
such as the nature of the relationship between people at the school and the way
in which the school is organised.
South Africa’s National Curriculum Statement (NCS) is deliberately open to

interpretation, allowing schools to plan the curriculum in ways that speak to the
particular realities and needs of their school contexts. Thus although the same
outcomes and assessment standards need to be addressed, the content,
sequencing and methodologies used will vary from school to school. This
variation in delivery makes monitoring and evaluation a critical aspect of the
school’s management of teaching and learning. It also foregrounds the
importance of benchmarking against both the school’s internal performance over
time as well as against the performance of schools in the same cluster and at a
national level. This benchmarking should involve more than just a simple
comparison of Grade 12 results.
Two areas that are of critical importance for effective teaching and learning and
which therefore call for particularly careful management are:
 M a na g e m e nt of assessment
 Management of LTSMs.
In addition, monitoring and evaluation of curriculum planning and

implementation are important and these will be addressed in unit 3.
In general, school management today requires a shift from a teacher-

centred to a learner-centred orientation. As senior and middle managers, we need
to keep in mind that the classroom climate created by the educator has a
powerful effect on how well learners learn. It is therefore necessary for school
managers to make sure that there is ongoing professional and personal growth at
the school with regard to classroom and school practices that promote effective
learning and foster democratic values and attitudes and a shared vision for
learning and teaching.
Striking a balance between the school’s interests and the needs of

individuals is a skill that can make all the difference between a well-run school
and a school that is out of touch with itself and its community.
The quality of teaching and learning in a school will be determined in

part by the overall culture of the school. The school culture in turn is influenced by
a variety
of different activities within the school: approaches to assessment, sports,
behaviour of learners and staff, ethos, infrastructure, discipline etc.
The main function of the principal is to provide academic leadership

and to
manage all the school resources, i.e. human, financial, physical and the
curriculum in such a way as to maximise the effectiveness of the school in
prom oting,developing and m aintaining quality teaching and learning.S/he m ust

ensure thatthere are appropriate structures in place to m anage and govern the
schoolatdifferentlevels e.g.LRCs, teacheruni ons,S GB s , Learnin g Ar ea
com m ittees etc.An effective schoolleaderm ustbe able to w ork w ith,and
encourage the bestperform ance fro m ,a w ide range ofpeople.
Unit 3: Skills and processes
Skills and processes for
m anaging teaching and learning
Introduction
Unit3 Learning Outcom es 3.1
Managing teaching and learning for school improvement 3.2
Monitoring classroom practice 3.3
Evaluating learner outcomes
3.4.1 W ithin-schoolvariation 3.4
Observation
3.5.1 T h e purpose ofobservatio n
3.5.2 Developing observation skills
3.5
Scrutinising educators’ and learners’ work 3.6
Modelling good classroom practice 3.7
Dialogue and Feedback 3.8
Conclusion: Towards Effective Management of Teaching
and Learning 3.9
Skills and processes for
m anaging teaching and
learning
3.1 Introduction
As w e saw in the previous units,principals and otherschoolm anagers have the
responsibility to ensure thathigh quality teaching and learning are taking place in
schools and classroom s.This unitw illfocus on those activities required to
m anage teaching and learning effectively.
Unit 3 Learning Outcom es

B y the end ofunit3,y ou should be able to:
 Dem onstrate understanding ofthe concepts ofm odelling,m onitoring and
evaluation.
 Develop a program m e to m odelgood teaching and learning practice in your
school .
 Develop a program m e to evaluate and m onitorteaching and learning in
your
school .
 Develop and use an observation fram ew ork to m onitorclassroom practice.
 Understand how to initiate constructive professionaldialogue.
Recom m ended reading

M oyles,J.(2007),Observation as a research tool,in Briggs,A.and
Colem an,M . (Eds.),Research M ethods in EducationalLeadership and M
anagem ent,London, S a g e .
Southw orth,G.(2004),Learning-centred leadership,in Davies,B.
(Ed.),The Essentials ofSchoolLeadership,London,PaulC h a p m an.
3.2 M anaging teaching and learning for school

im provem ent
As we noted earlier, the management of teaching and learning (MTL) is regarded
as increasingly important for principals and other school leaders. The South
African Standard for School Leadership, for example, in setting out the core
purpose of principalship, focuses strongly on the need to manage teaching and
learning effectively:
‘The core purpose of principalship is to provide leadership and

management in all areas of the school to enable the creation and support
of conditions under which high quality teaching and learning take place
and which promote the highest possible standards of learner
achievement’.
The research on school improvement shows that the two main factors
influencing the quality of education are classroom practice and leadership.
Leithwood et al (2006a) claim that leadership explains about 5 to 7 per cent of
the difference in learner achievement across schools. Principals can also impact
on classroom teaching by adopting a proactive approach and becoming
‘instructional’ leaders. However, Bush and Heystek’s (2006: 68) baseline research
for the Matthew Goniwe School of Leadership and Governance (MGSLG) shows
that South African principals do not conceptualise their role in this way. They were
much more concerned with financial management, human resource
management, and policy issues. The ‘management of teaching and learning’ was
ranked only seventh of ten leadership activities in a survey of more than 500
Gauteng principals (p.68). This ‘mind set’ needs to change if school and learner
outcomes are to improve.
Ali and Botha’s (2006) study of secondary school HoDs in Gauteng suggests that
this paradigm shift may have begun in some schools. Most (79%) of their
respondents refer to ‘monitoring the teaching and learning standards of educators
and learners’ as one of their major contributions to school improvement (p.80),
but the authors do question whether the HoDs are really carrying out this task.
They add that, with the introduction of Outcomes-Based Education (OBE), ‘the
responsibility of school managers has shifted towards instructional activities and
the accomplishment of high quality outcomes’ (p.12). They also note that, if
teaching and learning are to improve significantly, ‘HoDs will have to spend much
more time in supervising the teaching and learning activities that occur daily in
their subject or learning area’ (p.17).
Ali and Botha (2006) conclude with several recommendations. Several of these
relate specifically to MTL or what they describe as ‘the instructional domain’:
 Spend more time analysing learners’ results.
 Jointly develop departmental improvement plans with their educators.
 Monitor educator classroom records on a regular basis.
 Establish direct observation of educator teaching.
 Set improvement targets with educators.
UNIT THREE | SKILLS AND PROCESSES FOR M ANAGING TEACHING AND LEARNING | 63 |
These procedures will be examined in detail later in this unit.
A central purpose of this unit is to demonstrate how school leaders can manage
teaching and learning effectively. Because educators, not principals, work directly
with learners in the classroom, leaders’ influence is usually indirect. The English
NCSL (2005) says that their influence may be exerted in three ways:
 M odelling; using the power of example – sometimes the principal,
sometimes other leaders or educators.
 M onitoring; analysing and acting on pupil learning data, knowing what is
happening in classrooms, using classroom observation to find out about and
to spread effective teaching strategies and skills.
 Dialogue; professional conversations, formal and informal meetings,
feedback, mentoring and coaching of colleagues.
(NCSL 2005: 38).
Bush et al (2008) add that evaluation is another important tool to enhance the
quality of teaching and learning. They add that classroom practice may be judged
at two levels:
 M onitoring; seeking to assess the ways in which the teaching plans are put
into effect, and the outcomes from these in terms of pupil attainment.
 Evaluation; seeking to assess the impact of teaching and learning at a more
strategic level.
These twin approaches are discussed below.

3.3 M onitoring classroom practice

Southworth (2004) says that monitoring includes analysing and acting on
students’ progress and outcome data, for example assessment a nd test scores.
‘Leadership is stronger when it is informed by data on students’ learning,
progress and achievements as well as by direct knowledge of teaching practices
and classroom dynamics’ (p.79). He adds that monitoring involves visiting
classrooms, observing teachers at work and providing them with feedback. The
English Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted 2003) found that there was a
very strong link between good monitoring and good teaching. Southworth (ibid:
80) adds that ‘monitoring classrooms is now an accepted part of leadership’. He
concludes that monitoring is a widely distributed role, including head teachers,
deputies and heads of department.
Hargreaves (2005) deals with assessment of learning as an aspect of monitoring

in the classroom. She sets out six possible objectives:
 Measuring pupil attainment against stated targets or objectives
 Using assessment to inform the next steps in teaching and learning
planning
 As a basis of feedback for improvement
 As evidence for teachers to learn about pupil’s learning
 As a basis for children to take some control over their own learning
 As an opportunity to turn assessment into a learning event.
Leithwood et al (2006b) provide an outline of effective monitoring

based upon agreement between stakeholders on the data that provides a
measurable and yet realistic view of what is happening in the school and the
classroom. They suggest that this should build on a combination of system results
(internal test results and district or national examination results), and consistent
student assessment practices. These should lead to longitudinal monitoring as
students and classes move further up the school.
In the USA, the North West Regional Education Laboratory (2001)

provides a summary of monitoring practices. It argues that practitioners at district
and school level should:
 Collect and summarise information about student performance on a regular
basis, identify areas of strength and weakness and relate these
to goals and objectives.
 Co-ordinate assessment to ensure quality, avoid duplication of effort and
minimise disruption to classroom instruction.
 Use assessment results to evaluate programs and target areas for
improvement.
 Provide direct support for classroom-level assessment efforts.
Bush et al (2008) say that monitoring is an ongoing process,

undertaken to establish whether teaching and learning are taking place in a
satisfactory way. They report that, in their Limpopo and Mpumalanga research,
HoDs in all eight schools examine educators’ portfolios and workbooks and also
check learners’ work to see if educators’ claims are matched by learner
outcomes.
Principals, in turn, review HoDs’ work and may also check learners’ work directly.
However, most of these schools do not have a programme of classroom
observation and monitoring appeared to be undertaken largely to fulfil provincial
DoE expectations rather than to promote improvement in classroom practice.
One exception was the principal who instigated disciplinary action against an HoD
who failed to monitor his educators effectively, resulting in very low matric
scores.
3.4 Evaluating learner outcom es

As we noted earlier, there has been increasing emphasis on ‘benchmarking’,
where the progress made within a school is compared with that achieved in
similar schools (Glover and Levacic 2007). This is also the approach within South
Africa’s Whole-School Evaluation policy. ‘The supervisors use agreed national
criteria so that the conclusion they reach about one school can be compared with
the conclusions reached about another, no matter where it is in the country’
(www.education.gpg.gov.za). In practice, however, some provinces are using
simple assessment data to ‘label’ schools as under-performing regardless of
contextual variables. In Mpumalanga, any secondary school with a matric pass
rate below 60% is classified as ‘under-performing’, even in the most
disadvantaged contexts (Bush et al 2008).
3.4.1 W ithin-schoolvariation
Comparing school performance, and learner outcomes, between schools in
different contexts is difficult and fraught with methodological challenges. How
much allowance should be made for the impact of poverty, ill-health and hunger,
for example, on the performance of learners? That is why the Mpumalanga
‘label’, referred to above, can be seen as unfair. In contrast, comparing results
within a single school is straightforward and much more meaningful. If the same
group of learners perform well in one learning area and badly in another, this
must be due to internal factors, not the external context.
Reynolds (2007) has developed a system for consideration of progress within a

single school – comparing the progress of one group against the average for the
school as a whole. This is called Within-School Variation (WSV). The advantage of
this approach is that the context is the same so that differences can be readily
attributed to in-school variables. In one South African secondary school examined
by Bush et al (2008), for example, the 2007 matric score averaged 52% but
subject scores varied from 13% in maths to 85% in English.
Reynolds (2007) identifies several ‘historical barriers’ in dealing with WSV.

Some of these factors are applied to the South African school mentioned above
(see table 2):
TABLE 3: APPLYING ‘WITHIN-SCHOOL VARIATION’ TO ONE SOUTH AFRICAN SECONDARY

SCHOOL
‘Historical barriers’ in dealing with WSV Factors influencing WSV in one

(Reynolds 2007) secondary school (Bush et al 2008)
Weak school management that fails to The principal says that the HoD (maths) is
confront the issue lazy and he is now subject to a verbal
warning. The HoD adopts a ‘blame the
learner’ approach and also criticises the
primary schools.
False modesty on the part of effective The languages HoD is modest about his
teachers/departments achievements
‘Historical barriers’ in dealing with WSV Factors influencing WSV in one

(Reynolds 2007) secondary school (Bush et al 2008)
The difficulty of separating personal Both HoDs claim to use classroom
reasons for effective practice from the observation but the languages HoD uses
methods that are being used. this approach more consistently and
more effectively
The difficulty of getting departments to The school operates a ‘silo’ model with
see any utility in swapping practice when each department using a different
there are different subject cultures observation instrument
Analyse your school’s public examination results to assess within-school

3a variation. Using table 4, explain the reasons for such variations.
± 30 m in
TABLE 4: EXPLAINING ‘WITHIN-SCHOOL VARIATION’ AT MY SCHOOL
REASONS M AJOR FACTOR M INOR FACTOR NOT APPLICABLE
Differences in the
quality or
commitment of HoDs
Differences in the
quality or
commitment of
educators
Attitudes of learners
Grade progression
criteria
Knowledge ‘gaps’ at
school entry
Other (please state)
You should attempt a frank and honest answer to this question. Try to avoid
focusing too strongly on ‘learner attitudes’. The same learners are involved in
all, or most, subjects, so variable learner attitudes are likely to be a response to
educator or school variables. If you identify a problem area, consider how you
are going to address it.
Reynolds (2007: 18) stresses that there should be a clear focus on teaching and
learning to reduce within-school variation. This requires:
 The development of high-quality observational systems.
 Attem pting to specify the core classroom -related teacherbehaviours.

 Encouraging discussion ofteaching in departm ents and across the school.
 Attem pting greaterconsistency in teaching behaviours and especially in
the
expectations ofpupils,w ithin and across departm ents.
As bulletpointone above suggests,effective m onitoring and evaluation

require classroom observation.
3.5 Observation
O’Sullivan (2006) stresses that educational quality can only be improved if there is
systematic observation of what is happening in the classroom. This involves
recording, analysing and reflecting on inter-relationships, interactions and
outcomes. Observation provides insights critical to assessing and improving
quality (p. 253).
O’Sullivan states that lesson observation can answer the ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘why’
questions:
 ‘What is the current state of educational quality in the school?’
 ‘How can it be realistically improved with the available resources?’
 ‘Why is the quality of education poor?’
She adds that the ‘‘why’’ questions have to be supported with other
data, most notably teacher interview data, in order to fully understand the
teaching and learning processes currently being used and the extent to which
particular processes are likely to be implemented (p.254). This supports the need
for dialogue with educators and HoDs, mentioned above.
3.5.1 The purpose ofobservation

Observation may be used for teacher development or as a tool for teacher
assessment or performance management. A teacher development focus targets
the improvement of teaching and learning while a performance management
approach is more instrumental, seeking to ‘weed out’ inadequate teachers.
O’Sullivan (2006) stresses the importance of allowing for context in making
judgements about the quality of teaching and learning. The Integrated Quality
Management System (IQMS) in South Africa may be seen as an example of a
performance management approach but we recommend a clear focus on
educator development when implementing an observation programme in your
school. The starting point should be a shared interest in raising standards of
teaching, for the benefit of learners.
O’Sullivan (2004) reports on the use of observation to assess teacher

development needs in Namibia:
‘Lesson observation data were found to be particularly useful for needs
assessment. They provided an insight into teachers’ realities, their
problems and training needs, which was not accessible using the other
methods. For example, interviewing teachers about their needs, the
com m on method used to access needs, was not found to be effective.
Teachers interviewed told the author that they were familiar with and
using learner-centred approaches. Lesson observations, however, refuted
this. They indicated that rote teaching was the only approach used by
teachers. In 94% of the lessons observed the teacher talked for most of
the lesson and in only 2% of lessons did individual children answer
questions. This led the trainer to designing training activities to develop
teachers’ understanding of and capacities to use learner-centred methods
and approaches’.
O’Sullivan (2004) adds that teachers were not sufficiently empowered to

determine their own training needs. Lesson observation addressed this gap. A
lesson observation form was used to guide the collection of data. The researcher
completed it as she observed lessons. It sought to access details about
resources, state of classrooms, learner interest, motivation and participation in
lessons, the actual lesson, and teachers’ standard of basic teaching and
classroom management skills. A quantitative analysis of the completed 87 lesson
observation forms indicated, for example, very poor resources and working
conditions, low learner participation, no group work or pair work, and poor basic
teaching skills, such as asking questions, lesson preparation, use of chalkboard,
classroom management, appropriateness of content, and so on (pp.12-13).
Secondary SchoolA (B u sh et al2008)

This school has about 900 learners from Grade 8 to Grade 12. It is located in
a poor part of a township, adjacent to a small town. Learners are often hungry.
There is extensive unemployment in the township and there are many child-
headed families, due to HIV/AIDS. There are also problems of teenage
pregnancy.
Historically, standards have been high but matric results declined to 52% in
2007 and the school is now regarded as ‘under-performing’ by the provincial
DoE.
School managers monitor teaching and learning in two ways. First, HoDs
moderate educators’ workbooks, learners’ class work and assessment tasks.
According to the languages HoD, this is done to see ‘whether class work has
been completed in accordance with the learning programme’.
Secondly, the school has introduced an observation programme as part of its

Improvement Plan. The principal explains the purpose of observation:
‘Observation is used to detect whether the lesson is progressing
properly and “reaching the learners”. Observation is to help the
educator and make sure there is effective teaching and learning. We do
observation to see what is happening. It is for both monitoring and
development’.
Observation takes place once a term. One educator notes that the HoD
provides both verbal and written feedback. ‘The feedback makes me a better
teacher’.
HoDs are free to develop their own observation instruments, linked to the
specific needs of their learning areas. The instrument developed by the
languages HoD is quite simple (see table 5).
TABLE 5:CLASSROOM OBSERVATION INSTRUM ENT:SECONDARY SCHOOL A
CRITERION YES NO
1. Is the lesson well prepared?

2. Are learners actively involved in their learning?
3. Are learners assessed continuously?
4. Can the educator create a positive learning environment?
5. Evidence of the knowledge of the curriculum and
learning
programmes
Recom m endations
Scrutinise the observation instrument developed for secondary school A and

3b answer the following questions:
Is the HoD asking appropriate questions? What would you change?

Is a simple yes/no grading appropriate? How would you adapt this

approach?
± 15 m in  Is this instrument likely to be helpful in improving educator
practice?
The questions cover some important topics but you might want to add
questions about subject knowledge, learner discipline and classroom displays.
The yes/no grading is simple to use but lacks precision. How do you respond if
some aspects of lesson preparation are good and some are inadequate? In
improving educator practice, the key element is likely to be the
‘recommendations’, which could provide the constructive feedback required to
generate improvement.
3.5.2 Developing observation skills

Observation is an everyday activity. In our professional and personal lives, we
notice what is happening around us and make ‘mental notes’ about what we see.
However, to conduct observation for professional purposes, for example to
assess teaching and learning, requires a more systematic approach. The first
decision for the observer is to be clear about the purpose(s) of the observation.
If it is being used as a monitoring tool, it may have the following purposes:
 To establish whether the educator is well prepared for the lesson.
 To assess whether there is appropriate classroom control.
 To assess the learning environment.
 To establish whether the educator has sound subject knowledge
 To assess the extent to which learners are able to interact with the
educator.
 To assess whether and h ow the educator assesses learner comprehension,
for example through appropriate questioning techniques.
You may be able to think of other purposes.
Secondly, you need to decide what role you will fulfil when observing. You may
be a participant observer, taking part in the lesson, or a non-participant observer,
watching without taking part. If you are monitoring the educator, then it is more
likely that you will be a non-participant. In this case, you need to position yourself
in the classroom so that you are as unobtrusive as possible. If your presence
changes the lesson in a significant way, then what you are observing will not be a
reliable indicator of classroom practice.
Third, you need to decide whether observation should be scheduled or

unscheduled. A scheduled observation is agreed in advance with the educator for
a specific time and with a particular grade. It is a professional courtesy to make
such arrangements in advance but it may lead to the educator preparing more
thoroughly than usual in order to put on a ‘show’ for your benefit. Unscheduled
observations may be unwelcome but may also allow you to see whether the
educator’s ‘normal’ lessons are of an appropriate quality.
Fourth, systematic observation requires a formal recording process. This is likely

to involve an instrument such as the one used by Secondary School A. To provide
for comparisons across classrooms and learning areas, a common observation
schedule should be designed and agreed through consultation with the SM T and
with educators.
Finally, you need to consider how you are going to provide feedback to the
educator. This may be in person or in writing, or both. An oral approach is more
personal and can be done soon after the lesson. You should always begin with
positive points before pointing out areas for improvement. Written feedback
should also be provided and recorded in the educator’s file. This would show
good and satisfactory aspects and record areas for improvement. This
observation record would be a starting point for the next observation.
Prepare an observation instrument for use in your school. Discuss it at a

3c meeting of the SMT and ask for suggestions for improvement. When you have
an agreed framework, conduct observations of two different educators, with
their agreement. Provide them with constructive feedback designed to improve
their teaching.
± 6 hours
There is no ‘set’ response to this activity. Its purpose is to help you to develop
your observation skills. You should include the instrument plus anonymous
copies of your observation records and feedback in your portfolio. You should
also reflect on the observation process and how you might improve your
approach for subsequent observations.
3.6 Scrutinising educators’ and learners’ work

Observation is one important aspect of monitoring but there are other strategies
available to school managers. Two major options are to scrutinise the written
work of educators and learners.
There are three main aspects to address when scrutinising educators’

documents:
 Ho w has the educator prepared for each lesson?
 How, if at all, has the educator recorded the outcomes of the lesson?
 How, if at all, does the educator record the outcomes of learner
assessment, including class work and homework?
Such scrutiny needs to go beyond routine reading to consider how

managers’ responses could help educators to improve their practice. You may
wish to produce a template for managers to enable them to adopt a consistent
approach to scrutiny. In responding to educators, managers should always begin
with positive points before making suggestions for improvement. Responses
should be recorded in the educator’s file. Combining scrutiny of documents with
classroom observation provides strong evidence about how well educators are
performing. This is known by researchers as ‘triangulation’, examining the same
issue in two different ways.
Bush et al (2008) report that managers at most of their eight South

African case study schools conduct some form of scrutiny of educators’ written
work. This usually comprises reading their portfolios and/or work books. At
school B, for example, HoDs moderate educators’ workbooks, learners’ class
work and assessment tasks. According to the languages HoD, this is done to see
‘whether class work has been completed in accordance with the learning
programme’.
The principal has a strong personal involvement at school D. She

examines and controls educators’ preparation files and portfolios and controls the
learners’ books to ascertain that what is in the educators’ portfolio corresponds
with what is in the learner’s books, and to ensure that all the work prescribed for
the term has been covered.
At school F, monitoring is highly structured and comprises four levels:

 At classroom level, educators monitor learners’ class work and assessment
tasks. Individual progress is monitored and individual feedback is provided.
 At departmental/subject level, HoDs and subject heads monitor educators’
planning and preparation, and moderate tests and examination
papers prior and subsequent to them being written. Results are analysed
and discussed per grade and subject during weekly meetings.
 At SMT level, HoDs provide feedback on their respective subjects, and
performance per subject, grade, and individual learner is
discussed as and when problems are identified.
 At school level, feedback is given to the academic committee of the SGB
once per term as a standing item on the agenda.
In contrast, the principal at school G could not provide a response to a question

about how learner achievement is monitored.
To what extent do your school’s monitoring processes match those used by

3d school F? Reflect on the differences and make notes for your portfolio. What
changes would you make to your arrangements in the light of what happens at
school F?
± 30 m in
There is no ‘set response’ to this activity. Its purpose is to encourage you to

reflect on your school’s monitoring and to see whether reading this section of
the module, and learning of the practices at school F in particular, has made you
think about modifying your own monitoring plans. The main learning point here
is that, however schools chose to do it, monitoring is an essential activity for
managers of teaching and learning.
3.7 M odelling good classroom practice

We noted earlier that modelling is an important strategy for leaders wishing to
raise standards of teaching and learning in their schools. This approach is based
on the assumption that principals, deputy principals and HoDs are also
experienced and successful educators. As part of their M T L role, such leaders
need to consider whether and how to use modelling. Two possible approaches
are:
 Agreeing a mutual observation strategy with an educator. The observation
of the educator’s work could be followed, or preceded, by the
educator observing the HoD’s lesson. This could be followed by a discussion
about the two lessons, linked to the HoD’s feedback on the educator’s work.
The key point here is that there should be mutual learning, with the
strengths and limitations of both lessons being discussed.
 The HoD could present a ‘model lesson’ for educators, particularly those
new to the school, or those teaching new subjects or the same
subject in a different grade. This would help to clarify the HoD’s
expectations. This approach is often used in Chinese schools (Bush et al
1998) and could be seen as one aspect of mentorship.
Southworth (2004: 78) claims that ‘modelling is all about the power of
example’. Successful leaders are aware that they must set an example and use
their actions to show how colleagues should behave. The concept of ‘role model’
underpins this approach. ‘Learning-centred leaders are role models to others
because they are interested in learning, teaching and classrooms’ (ibid: 79).
Teachers expect leaders to be able to ‘walk the talk’ (ibid: 78). School principals
sometimes lack
the confidence to model their teaching but you are likely to gain the
respect of educators if you show that you are a good teacher as well as an
effective leader.
Reynolds (2007) provides an example of modelling strategies for

supporting an inexperienced teacher in dealing with challenging behaviour. A
recent inspection of a large, inner-city primary school in England raised behaviour
management as a key issue in one of the Year 6 classes. The school addressed the
issue of challenging behaviour by developing a range of strategies based on a
positive approach to discipline. This has resulted in greatly improved behaviour in
the classroom, which has also had a positive impact on teaching and learning. The
issue has been addressed through a number of overlapping strategies:
 Modelling, monitoring and dialogue overlap and take place simultaneously.
 Opportunities to observe colleagues create structured support, constructive
feedback and the identification of professional learning needs.
 Effective modelling, monitoring and dialogue need to be given time and,
more often than not, reflect a high priority given to professional
development by the headteacher and leadership team.
 Modelling, through classroom observation, needs to be consistent and at
frequent and regular intervals. It also needs to be supported by
someone who has expertise and/or good subject knowledge.
(Adapted from Reynolds 2007:p.3).
While monitoring and evaluation provide a means of judging the quality of

classroom practice, any subsequent improvement depends on the quality of
feedback to educators and on their receptiveness to advice. In contrast,
modelling provides the potential for demonstrating good practice and generalising
it throughout the school. It arises from establishing what good practice is,
understanding how to encourage good practice, and then developing it through
mentoring, coaching and other self-development approaches.
Lataille-Demore (2007) provides an example of modelling in the introduction of

multi-grade teaching into small schools within Ontario, Canada. She contends that
good practice has to be acknowledged and then emulated by others willing and
able to learn. Explicit instruction is done in three consecutive stages:
 Modelling.
 Guided practice.
 Independent practice.
This provides a possible model to develop under-performing educators in South

Africa. The HoD can first give a demonstration lesson for the class, then work
with the educator through team-teaching or ‘participant observation’, then shift to
a non-participant observer role before leaving the educator to resume control of
the class. Subsequent observations will enable the leader to assess the
educator’s progress.
In England and Wales, the Advanced Skills Teacher (AST) grade was introduced
in 1998 to reward good practitioners, to open a career path for those who want to
stay in the classroom rather than moving into school management, and to shift
the school improvement agenda from school level to the classroom. ASTs
develop and then model good practice within their own school and within
associated schools. They demonstrate high-level skills in teaching, classroom
management and curriculum planning. They also have very good subject
knowledge and understand quality planning, pedagogic practice and evaluation.
Their responsibilities vary but include helping teachers with planning,
demonstrating teaching and collaborating on curriculum projects (Taylor and
Jennings 2004).
There is limited published work on the use of of modelling in South African

schools. In one combined school studied by Bush et al (2008), the principal claims
to ‘lead by example’ but he was referring to his own teaching role rather than
modelling or demonstrating good classroom practice to his colleagues.
3.8 Dialogue and feedback

We noted earlier the NCSL’s (2005) view that classroom practice can improve
where leaders regularly engage in dialogue with colleagues. This would mean
professional conversations in formal and informal meetings, with constructive
feedback and, where appropriate, mentoring and coaching educators. This can be
seen as ‘in-house’ professional development, where colleagues share their
expertise and experience, for their mutual benefit. It is sometimes challenging for
more senior people to admit problems or weaknesses but this may be the only
way to encourage educators to acknowledge their own difficulties. Recognising
problems is the essential first step to addressing them and producing real
improvement.
Dialogue needs to take place at two main levels in schools:

 Between the principal and the SMT
 Between HoDs and their learning area or phase teams.
As we noted earlier, team work can be a powerful means of

enhancing teaching and learning but it needs to be seen as a normal part of
professional life.
Through sharing experience, both problems and solutions emerge, leading to
enhanced learner outcomes. However, good team work is not automatic and
Bush et al (2008) report that five of the SMTs at their eight case study schools
were dysfunctional or failed to address teaching and learning issues. It is the
leader’s responsibility to activate their teams and to develop them as effective
vehicles for school improvement. Where appropriate, leaders should also coach
or mentor colleagues, especially but not exclusively those new to the school, to
produce professional development for the benefit of the school and its learners.
3.9 Conclusion:towards effective m anagem ent

ofteaching and learning
The discussion in this module provides a starting point for enhanced
management of teaching and learning. The central requirement is for principals,
deputy principals, HoDs and SMTs to focus centrally on teaching and learning
rather than on routine administration. This view was stressed soon after the
South African Schools Act (SASA), by the national Task Team:
“Improving the quality of learning . . . requires strategies which focus on
change at the school and classroom levels . . . Managers can no longer
simply wait for instructions or decisions from government. The pace of
change, and the need to be adaptable and responsive to local
circumstances, requires that managers develop new skills and ways of
working” (Department of Education 1996: 13-14).
Improving the quality of learning requires a strong focus on ‘instructional

leadership’. This means attempting to change the mind set of leaders to regard
the processes of teaching and learning as central to their role, rather than simply
leaving such matters to classroom educators. Leithwood and Jantzi (2004) argue
that transformational leadership provides the potential to produce lasting change
in schools. This approach aims to build personal capacity and to foster higher
levels of personal commitment, leading to extra effort and improved performance.
This module aims to achieve three main aims:

 A strong and lasting focus on teaching and learning as the main purpose of
schooling.
 Skills development to enable principals and other school leaders to model
good practice and to monitor and evaluate classroom activities.
 A commitment to openness, dialogue and distributed leadership,
recognising that expertise may be independent of formal hierarchies.
The strongest support for teaching and learning occurs where there
is a shared vision. Cooney (2006) argues that the main driver for improvement is
the leaders’ set of core values. Headteachers build person-centred cultures within
their schools based on the premise that each person is worthy of the greatest
respect. The school leaders in Cooney’s (2006) study were passionate advocates
of
placing the child’s needs at the heart of all the school did. Creating the climate for
positive relationships to flourish was seen as fundamental to the health of the
learning community. Adults in the school were conscious of modelling this with
colleagues; ‘they [pupils] see us treating each other with respect’.
A learning-centred-vision in South Africa needs to begin with an

audit of the context served by the school, which maps the socio-economic
background of the community and relates it to the role of the school and the
needs of learners. Showing respect for learners (see Cooney 2006) requires a
sensitive appreciation of the circumstances influencing student learning. In some
disadvantaged contexts, these are likely to include poor housing, a limited diet,
severe health
problems, teenage pregnancy, and other manifestations of unemployment and

poverty.
While schools cannot address all these problems, leaders need to be aware of
the ways in which they affect learning. For example, learners may find it difficult
to do homework if they have to care for younger siblings and alternative
arrangements m a y need to be made to ensure that basic skills are mastered.
Several schools studied by Bush et al (2008) provide additional morning,
afternoon or weekend lessons to ensure that learners maintain their progress.
Beyond such strategies, school leaders need to adopt an appropriate mix of
modelling, evaluation and monitoring, including classroom observation, designed
to ensure that learning is maximised and that the school’s best practice is
adopted throughout the school.
The main purpose of schooling is to promote learning and teaching. The use of
the term ‘learner’ in South Africa, instead of pupil or student, is a striking
illustration of what schools are supposed to achieve. While many South Africans
live in challenging circumstances, schools provide one of the few levers for
improving the life chances of deprived children and young people. Given the
centrality of learning, principals, deputies and HoDs need to give a high priority to
the management of teaching and learning and not ‘retreat’ into their offices, to
carry out routine administrative activities.
The starting point is to develop a vision for the school that places learning and
teaching at the centre. Secondly, principals and their SMTs need to set out clear
expectations of their learners and educators, and demonstrate good practice in
their own teaching and leadership activities. The essential tools for managing
teaching and learning are modelling, monitoring and evaluation. Leaders should
provide good models in term of lesson preparation, subject knowledge,
pedagogic approaches, assessment, and learner welfare. They should monitor
educators’ practice in a systematic way and provide constructive feedback. They
should also evaluate school outcomes and ‘benchmark’ them against schools in
similar circumstances. Above all, school climate has to promote a positive
approach to learning among all stakeholders; learners, educators, parents and the
local community. This provides the best prospect of sustainable school
improvement.
Teaching and learning are the central purposes of the school and are

impacted on by the nature and use of various physical, financial and
human resources.
 Schools should be seeking continuous improvement in the quality of
teaching and learning and that requires continuous monitoring of
performance and achievement against goals.
 In the context of the NCS, this monitoring involves more than simply a
technical and administrative process of checking whether lesson
plans
etc. have been written. It involves asking critical questions about a wide
variety of factors that will impact on the quality of teaching and learning.
 School leaders and managers have a critical role to play in
monitoring
teaching and learning both as SMT members and as curriculum
leaders in their own departments.
 Monitoring as a management function, like CASS in the classroom, is a
continuous and cyclical process not a once-off event.

 Monitoring necessarily involves observing classroom practice and
providing constructive feedback to educators.
 Encouraging the development of teams and collaborative peer evaluation,
within and beyond the processes established for the IQMS, can help
school leaders and managers find a workable balance between monitoring
practice and respecting professional autonomy as well addressing issues
of trust and accountability.
 School managers should be able to model good classroom practice and
engage in productive dialogue about how to improve teaching and
learning.
References
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Edition, London, Sage.
Bush, T. and Glover, D. (2002), School Leadership: Concepts and Evidence,
Nottingham, National College for School Leadership.
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Paper, Johannesburg, Matthew Goniwe School of Leadership and Governance.
Bush, T. and Heystek, J. (2006), School leadership and management in South
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Bush, T. and Middlewood, D. (2005), Leading and Managing People in
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Coleman, M. (Eds.), Leadership and Strategic Management in South African
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Management, Pretoria, JL van Schaik publishers.
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(Ed.), The Essentials ofSchoolLeadership, London, Paul Chapman Publishing.
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Strong claim s aboutSuccessfulSchoolLeadership, London, Department for
Education and Skills.
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Policies on South African Education,Johannesburg, CEPD.
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(Eds.), Research Methods in Educational Leadership and Management, London,
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A Research Synthesis (Section 3), http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/esp/esp95toc.html
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Inspection Tells Us? London, Ofsted.
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Bell, L. and Middlewood, D. (Eds.), The Principles ofEducationalLeadership and
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www.mml.co.za/revised_national_curriculum_statement.htm
Texts & Tem plates
Readers & Templates
T h e readercontains a textwhi ch represents a n extensio n ofthe

discussio n in the m ain text.
The various tem plates presented in the m odule can be adapted to
suityour o w n purposes.
READER
Developing an NCS tim etable TEXT 1
ILLUSTRATIVE TEMPLATES
W ays ofleading and m anaging TEMPLATE 1
Selection oftext-based LT S M s TEMPLATE 2
Selection of other LTSMs TEMPLATE 3
District level analysis of quarterly school performance TEMPLATE 4
Structure for cumulative/quarterly tests TEMPLATE 5
Item analysis TEMPLATE 6
Learner assessment records TEMPLATE 7
Moderator’s report on quarterly test TEMPLATE 8

TEXTS AND TEM PLATES | | 85 |
Reader
Text 1: Developing an NCS tim etable

The DoE recom m end a six-step process to undertake this
planning.The follow ing exam ple is based on planning forFET,w hich is probably
the m ostcom plicated.
Step 1: Study the tim etable allocations persubjectin the NCS Grades 10-12 (General)
Section A subjects consistof:
 tw o officiallanguages (2 x 4.5 hours)
 M athem aticsorM athem aticalLiteracy (1 x 5 hours)and
 Life Orientation (1 x 2 hours).
Section B consists of:

 Three subjects from w ithin tw o orm ore learning fields (3 x 4.5
hours)
Step 2: Determ ine the num berofperiods persubjectperw eek in the schooltim etable
Policy (ELRC Resolution 8 2003)provides the follow ing guidelines on teaching
tim e allocations:
PostLevel 1: 9 0 % +
PostLevel 2: 8 5 % + (e.g.H o D )
PostLevel3: 6 0 % + (e.g.Deputy Principal)
PostLevel4: 5-6 0 % (e.g.Principal:allprincipals should also be teachers!)
Policy furtherstates thatteachers need to be on duty for35 hours a w eek (i.e.7

hours a day)and ofthese hours contacttim e is 29.5 hours (FET:27.5 hours for
SP).To w ork outthe tim e allocation ofeach subjectin m inutes,m ultiply the
hours allocated to itby 60:
 4.5 hours x 60 = 270 m inutes foreach ofthe 2 languages,3 section B
subjects
 5 hours x 60 = 300 m inutes forM athem atics orM athem aticalLiteracy
 2 hours x 60 = 120 m inutes forLife Orientation.
Itis recom m ended thata period orblock should notbe less than 45 m inutes,so if
each period is 45 m inutes,then w e w ork outthe num berofperiods persubject
by dividing its totaltim e allocated in m inutes by 45:
 270 divided by 45 = 6 periods
 300 divided by 45 = 6.7 periods (rounded up to 7)
 120 divided by 45 = 2.7 periods (rounded up to 3).
This m eans that:

 M athem atics orM athem aticalLiteracy w illhave 7 periods orblocks per
w eek.
 Life Orientation w illhave 3 periods orblocks perw eek and
 Al lthe othersubjects (2 languages,3 othersubjects)w illhave 6 periods or
blocks perw eek.
Ifthis is alladded up,the totalw illbe 40 periods orblocks perw eek.

The result is 5 days with 8 periods. See Table A.
Table A
P M onday Tuesday W ednesday Thursday Friday
A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Further suggestions:
 Consider the option of double periods or blocks (e.g. Mathematics could
be
2 + 2 + 2 + 1).
The break time can be decided by each school. An example would be two

breaks of 20 minutes each or one break of 40 minutes.
Step 3: Study the Learning Fields offered by the schooland determ ine w hich ofthe
subjects are core subjects in yourschool(excluding Section A Subjects)to allocate
theirperiods in the tim etable.
Example from Arts and Culture Learning Field
There are five subjects in this field and two have to be selected because of the
school’s limited capacity: Dance Studies, Design, Dramatic Arts, Music and Visual
Arts.
Suggested combinations:
 Dance and Dramatic Arts
 Music and Dramatic Arts
 Design and Visual Arts
Teachers available:
 2 teachers available for Drama
 1 for Music
 1 for Dance
 1 for Visual Arts
 1 for Design.
Learner enrolment per subject for Grade 12:

 70 learners taking Drama
 27 for Music
 32 for Dance
 36 for Visual Art
 30 for Design.
On the class tim etable,these com binations w illbe reflected as AC1 and 2,AC3
and 4,A C 5 and 6,w here:
 AC1 = Dance
 AC2 = Dram a
 AC3 = M usic
 AC4 = Dram a
 AC5 = Design
 AC6 = VisualArt.
Step 4: Draw up the class timetable together with the teacher timetable.
Start with
Grade 12 and work down to Grade 8.
Place M athem atics/M athem aticalLiteracy first.

12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
1 Ma Ma Ma
2 Ma Ma
3 Ma Ma Ma
4 Ma Ma
5 Ma Ma Ma
6 Ma Ma Ma
7 Ma Ma
8 Ma Ma Ma
Now plan the teachertim etable:
NS = Neerm ala Singh forM aths and BP = Barbara Posthum a forM aths Literacy

12A 12B 12C 12A 12B `12C 12A 12B 12C 12A 12B 12C 12A 12B 12C
1 NS NS NS
BP BP BP
2 NS NS
BP BP
3 NS NS NS
BP BP BP
4 NS NS
BP BP
5 NS NS NS
BP BP BP
6 NS NS NS
BP BP BP
7 NS NS
BP BP
8 NS NS NS
BP BP BP
Now place the tw o Languages.Forthis exam ple w e have seTsw ana (Tsw )as
Hom e Language and English (Eng)as FirstAdditionalLanguage/LOLT.
1 Ma Ma Tsw Tsw Ma Eng
2 Ma Ma Tsw Tsw Tsw Eng
3 Eng M a Eng Eng Tsw Ma Tsw Ma
4 Eng M a Eng Eng Tsw M a Eng Tsw
5 Eng M a Eng M a Tsw Tsw M a Eng Tsw
6 Eng M a Eng M a Tsw Tsw M a Eng Tsw
7 Eng Ma Tsw Ma Eng Tsw
8 Eng Ma Tsw Ma Ma
The tw o Language teachers concerned are M rJacob M ashiane (JM )for

seTsw ana and M s Jane M orris (JS)forEnglish.

1 NS NS JM JM NS JS
BP BP BP
2 NS NS JM JM JM JS
BP BP
3 JS NS JS JS JM NS JM NS
BP BP BP
4 JS NS JS JS JM NS JS JM
BP BP
5 JS NS JS NS JM JM NS JS JM
BP BP BP
6 JS NS JS NS JM JM NS JS JM
BP BP BP
7 JS NS JM NS JS JM
BP BP
8 JS NS JM NS NS
BP BP BP
Now w e can place the core subjects.
1 Ma AC3 AC6 AC1 AC6 Ma AC4 Tsw AC1 AC4 Tsw Ma Eng
2 Ma AC3 AC6 AC1 AC6 Ma AC4 Tsw AC1 AC4 Tsw Tsw Eng
3 Eng M a AC5 AC2 Eng Eng AC2 Tsw Ma Tsw Ma
4 Eng M a AC5 AC2 Eng Eng AC2 Tsw M a Eng Tsw AC5
5 AC1 Eng M a Eng M a Tsw AC5 Tsw Ma AC6 Eng Tsw AC5
6 AC1 Eng M a Eng M a Tsw AC5 Tsw Ma AC6 Eng Tsw
7 AC2 AC4 Eng Ma Tsw AC3 Ma AC3 Eng Tsw
8 AC2 AC4 Eng Ma Tsw AC3 Ma AC3 Ma
The teachers forthe Arts and Culture core subjects are as follow s:
 AC1 = Dance M s L Khum alo (LK)
 AC2 = Dram a M rS Ngw enya (SN)
 AC3 = M usic M rM Van Staden (M S)
 AC4 = Dram a M rB Segoe (BS)
 AC5 = Design M rs E Steenkam p (ES)
 AC6 = VisualArt M rs E Nkam bule (EN)

12 12 12 12 12 `12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
1 NS MS EN LK EN NS BS JM LK BS JM NS JS
BP BP BP
2 NS MS EN LK EN NS BS JM LK BS JM JM JS
BP BP
3 JS NS ES SN JS JS SN JM NS JM NS
BP BP BP
4 JS NS ES SN JS JS SN JM NS JS JM ES
BP BP
5 LK JS NS JS NS JM ES JM NS EN JS JM ES
BP BP BP
6 LK JS NS JS NS JM ES JM NS EN JS JM
BP BP BP
7 SN BS JS NS JM MS NS MS JS JM
BP BP
8 SN BS JS NS JM MS NS MS NS
BP BP BP
The finalstep forthe Grade 12 tim etable is to place the schoolelectives (6

blocks)and Life Orientation (3 blocks).The electives can be one subjectfrom any
learning field.Itis im portant,how ever,thatthe electives are carefully chosen
taking into accountthe staffing available to the school.In this exam ple,the
choice is History and Geography because this is a strongly staffed unit.Note,
how ever,thatfocus schools m ustofferthe fulllearning field in theirspecialist
area.On ourtim etable w e indicate H/G as the elective choice ofthe schooland
as there are tw o teachers (1 History and 1 Geography)involved,the learners can
do History orGeography.
T h e teachers forthese subjects are:

 History (H) M rs T Holom isa (TH)
 Geography (G) M rR Harris (RH)
 Life Orientation (LO) M rH Kriek (HK)
1 Ma AC3 AC6 AC1 H/G AC6 Ma AC4 Tsw AC1 AC4 Tsw Ma H/G Eng
2 Ma AC3 AC6 AC1 H/G AC6 Ma AC4 Tsw AC1 AC4 Tsw Tsw H/G Eng
3 Eng M a AC5 AC2 LO Eng Eng H/G LO AC2 Tsw Ma Tsw LO Ma
4 Eng M a AC5 AC2 LO Eng Eng H/G LO AC2 Tsw Ma Eng Tsw AC5
5 AC1 Eng M a H/G Eng M a H/G Tsw AC5 Tsw Ma AC6 Eng Tsw AC5
6 AC1 Eng M a H/G Eng M a H/G Tsw AC5 Tsw Ma AC6 LO Eng Tsw
7 AC2 AC4 Eng LO M a H/G Tsw AC3 H/G Ma AC3 H/G H/G Eng Tsw
8 AC2 AC4 Eng LO M a H/G Tsw AC3 H/G Ma AC3 H/G H/G M a LO

1 NS M S EN LK TH EN NS BS JM LK BS JM NS TH JS
BP RH BP BP RH
2 NS M S EN LK TH EN NS BS JM LK BS JM JM TH JS
BP RH BP RH
3 JS NS ES SN HK JS JS TH HK SN JM NS JM HK NS
BP RH BP BP
4 JS NS ES SN HK JS JS TH HK SN JM NS JS JM ES
BP RH BP
5 LK JS NS TH JS NS TH JM ES JM NS EN JS JM ES
BP RH BP RH BP
6 LK JS NS TH JS NS TH JM ES JM NS EN HK JS JM
BP RH BP RH BP
7 SN BS JS HK NS TH JM M S TH NS M S TH TH JS JM
BP RH RH BP RH RH
8 SN BS JS HK NS TH JM M S TH NS M S TH TH NS HK
BP RH RH BP RH RH BP
Step 5: Follow same process for Grade 11 and Grade 10.
Step 6: Plan Grades 8 and 9, remembering there are EIGHT learning areas.
Contacttim e in the seniorphase:
 Languages 25% = 10 periods
 M athem atics 18% = 7,2 periods (rounded up to 8 periods)
 NaturalSciences 13% = 5,2 periods (rounded dow n to 5 periods)
 SocialSciences 12% = 4,8 periods (rounded up to 5 periods)
 Arts and Culture 8% = 3,2 periods (rounded dow n to 3 periods)
 Life Orientation 8% = 3,2 periods (rounded dow n to 3 periods)
 Econom ic and M anagem entSciences 8% = 3,2 periods (3 periods)
 Technology 8% = 3,2 periods (3 periods)

9A 9B 8A 9A 9B 8A 9A 9B 8A 9A 9B 8A 9A 9B 8A
1 L LO SS SS EM S M L EM S SS EM S T M L SS T
2 L SS LO SS EM S M L LO SS EM S AC M L SS T
3 M L NS NS M L M L LO T M L AC L LO
4 M NS NS M L M L S AC M L AC L EM S
5 NS M L M L NS NS M L M L AC LO AC L
6 NS M L M L NS LO M L M L EM S T AC L
7 LO NS M L NS SS SS T M L SS EM S T LO AC
8 SS NS M L NS SS SS T M L SS T EM S NS AC
Having com pleted the tim etabling as above,each teachershould receive their
ow n tim etable.In addition to theirnorm alteaching loads,each teachershould be
aw are ofw hen they should be available forpossible substitution duties.
Illustrative tem plates
Tem plate 1:W ays ofleading

and m anaging
W ays ofLeading and M anaging Always Frequently Som etim es Never
Have w e w orked togetherto articulate a shared

purpose and educationalvision focused on learning?
Does the SM T protectthe vision and m ake itvisible to

others?
Does the SM T com m unicate theirvalues and m ission

in the things they do,how they spend theirtim e,and
w hatthey considerim portant?
Do w e take collective responsibility forschool practices

and DISCIPLINE?
Does the SM T in ourschoolem phasize pow er through
people ratherthan pow eroverpeople?
Is the schoolusing the correctalternatives tow ards

corporalpunishm ent?
Does the SM T facilitate,guide,and coach others to

adoptpractices thatadvance learnerperform ance?
Academ ic and social?
Does the SM T provide socialsupportforhigh

academ ic achievem ent?
Does the SM T com m unicate theirpassion forlearning

by challenging ineffective practices?
Does the SM T create a culture thatsupports risk-
taking and encourages innovation?
Are discussion and inquiry com m on and accepted

practices in ourschool?
Do w e share inform ation and m ake decisions together?
Do w e solve problem s collaboratively?
Are w e open to m ultiple approaches and solutions

ratherthan reliance on single answ ers and past
practices?
Does the SM T try to gain m any points ofview before

solving im portantproblem s?
Is decision m aking consensualand inclusive as
opposed to top-dow n and non-participatory?
W ays ofLeading and M anaging Always Frequently Som etim es Never
Does the SM T provide form aland inform alm eans for

staffand learners to raise and solve problem s in the
school?
Are learning goals clear,understood,and accepted?
Does the SM T protectacadem ic tim e and support

teachers in keeping learners engaged in learning?
Do learners acquire essentialskills and know ledge at

high levels?
Do w e engage learners as active learners and co-

constructors ofknow ledge?
Do classroom practices develop thinking skills forall
children ratherthan em phasize rote acquisition of basic
skills?
Do classroom practices provide opportunities to apply

and use know ledge in a variety ofcontexts?
Do w e provide opportunities forlearners to directand
be responsible fortheirow n learning?
Do w e use cooperative learning groups and other

alternative m ethods ratherthan relying solely on
independentw ork and com petition?
Are som e learning experiences interdisciplinary?
Do learning experiences in ourschoolincorporate

resources outside ofthe classroom ?
Is there tim e and supportforprofessional developm

entthatim proves curriculum ,teaching,and learning?
Does the SM T m odellife-long learning forothers by

sharing new learning,successes,and failures?
Adapted from Em erging Leadership Practices 2001 by Stinnette,L.J and Peterson,K.

Tem plate 2:Selection oftext-based LTSM s
Section 1:Generic OBE and NCS principles 1-4

1.1 The material attempts to achieve all the Critical and Developmental
outcomes.
1.2 The material follows an OBE approach.
1.3 The material encourages critical thinking.

1.4 The material acknowledges the prior experience of learners.
1.5 There is a clear integration of theory and applied competence.

Detailed com m ent:
Sectio n 2:Assessm ent 1-4

2.1 The material provides learners with feedback on learning activities and
on various assessments to serve as self-assessment and for diagnostic
purposes.
2.2 Assessment procedures are clear (type of assessment, link between

assessment standards and learning outcomes etc.)
2.3 Instructions and directions on how assessment should take place are
clearly explained.
2.4 Assessment strategies (summative, formative, continuous) are
indicated for all Learning Outcomes.
2.5 The material includes samples of a variety of assessment instruments
(checklists, rating scales, rubrics).
2.6 The assessment takes into account the appropriate performance
descriptions.
2.7 The material assesses the learning process and learner progress as
well as assessment products.
2.8 The assessment materials assess different thinking and
communication skills such as the recall of knowledge, comprehension,
application, explanation, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
2.9 The assessment material is motivating rather than intimidating and
provides differentiation without discouraging, patronising or diminishing
weaker learners.
2.10 Assessment material provides challenges for the above average learners.
2.11 Assessment targets learner achievement at different levels of

complexity.
2.12 Assessment is clearly formulated and unambiguous.

2.13 The material provides learners/teachers with ‘remedial’ activities.
2.14 The material provides learners/teachers with guidance to help collect,

record and judge evidence of learning.
2.15
Assessm entm aterials caterforportfolio requirem ents.
Detailed com m ents:
Section 3:H u m an rights and cross-cutting issues

3.1 The m aterialis sensitive to allculturalgroups.
3.2 The m aterialis devoid ofracistinnuendo,sexiststereotyping,textual
and visualm aterialofan offensive nature.
3.3 The m aterialreflects the principles ofhum an rights,socialjustice,
inclusivity,environm entalaw areness and incorporates indigenous
know ledge system s.
3.4 The m aterialcan be m odified to caterforlearners w ho experience
barriers to learning.
Sectio n 4:Vi sualpresentation/layout/structure 1-4

4.1 The m aterialhas an appealing,attractive cover.
4.2 The title page and chapterpages in the textare appealing and accurate.
4.3 A com plete index/contentlistis provided.
4.4 The layout(face presentation)ofthe m aterials appeals to the learners
and teachers and is helpfuland consistent.
4.5 The layouthas a pleasing and functionalbalance betw een blocks of grey
text,w hite space,appropriate borders and graphic m aterial.
4.6 The textis broken into recognized hierarchicalstructures,using headings
and sub-headings.
4.7 There are clearstatem ents ofintended Learning Outcom es atthe start
ofUnits/M odules/Chapters/Sections.
4.8 Appendices/glossary/notes contain additional,helpfulinform ation that
assists learners to com e to term s w ith difficultconcepts and term s.
4.9 Activities and learning opportunities are arranged logically and
coherently throughoutthe text.
4.10 The m aterialprovides a checklistthatsum s up the learning outcom es
and assessm entstandards addressed in each unit/m odule ofactivities.
4.11 The fontand type face are clearand easy to read.
4.12 The book is ofa m anageable size,is m ade from good quality paperand
is securely bound.

Section 5:Subjectspecific requirem ents

1-4
(These w illobviously vary.The exam ples given referto
Language m aterials)
5.1 The contentis relevantto the requirem ents ofthe subject.

5.2 The conceptlevelofthe m aterialis appropriate forthe targetgroup.
5.3 The contentis appropriate forlearners w ith a variety oflanguage
backgrounds and ability w ithin the language oflearning and teaching.
5.4 The language ofthe m aterialsis sensitive to issues ofculture,gender,

race orotherpossible bias.
5.5 The contentcaters forinclusion ofvarious culturaland language groups

w ithin activities,case studies and exam ples.
5.6 The contentfocuses on Learning Outcom es,Assessm entStandards,

know ledge,skills,attitudes and values.
5.7 The contentlends itselfto cross-curricularintegration.

5.8 The illustrations are m eaningful,accurate,properly captioned and relate
to w ritten text.
5.9
The m aterialincorporates textualand visualm aterialrepresenting all
cultures ofthe targetgroup and m ainly ofthe country.
5.10 There is a level,and grade appropriate balance betw een listening,
speaking,view ing,w riting and presenting.
5.11 The contentprovides fora variety ofm eaningfulactivities forindividual,

pair,sm allgroup and w hole class w ork.
Overallrating ofm aterials

i.e.w hatis youroverallrecom m endation on w hethernotthese
resources should be ordered?
Tem plate 3:Selection ofother LTSM s
M aps,wallcharts and flip charts 1-4
1 Is the information accurate, up to date and authentic?
2 Is the information clearly presented and well organised?
3 Is the presentation:
Bright and colourful
Aesthetically pleasing in appearance
Not over dense in terms of text and graphics?
Gam es and puzzles 1-4
1 Does the material develop:

Appropriate skills
Problem solving
Cognitive development
Social interaction
Working together?
2 Is the presentation:
Interesting
Colourful
Bright?
3 Is the technical quality of high standard?
Audio cassettes 1-4
1 Is the quality good?

Is the sound clear?
Is the voice clear and well modulated?
Is there a variation in tone and dynamics?
Is the background sound or music not too loud?
2 Is the tempo of the dialogue easy to follow for the age group?
Are there appropriate pauses for learners’ responses?
3 Is a guide provided to support the teacher towards the goals of the audio
cassette?
4 Does the cassette:

Promote attentive listening skills
Achieve its purpose?
5 Does the resource hold your attention throughout?
6 Is the length appropriate for the age level?
7 Are there any technical concerns (clarity, etc.)?
Video cassettes 1-4
1 Is the video of high technical quality?
2 Are the graphics, animation, sound and music reproduction of high quality?
3 Is the material visually stimulating and does it achieve its purpose?

4 In the case ofa dram atic production:

Is the acting and setting convincing
Is the language levelappropriate forthe users?
5 Does the resource hold yourattention throughout?
6 Is the length appropriate forthe age level?

CD ROM s 1-4
(in c l .refe r e n c e w o r k s , train i n g p r o g r a m m e sa n d c o m p u t e r g a m es)
1 Is a site licence system available? (This is recom m ended.)
2 Is a netw ork version available? (Recom m ended.)
3 Is the program m e learnerfriendly?
4 Is learnercontrolprovided through flexible pacing and optim albranching and

linking?
5 Is the m ulti-m edia potentialdem onstrated by the use of:

High quality graphics and anim ation
Sound and m usic
Photo art
Creative learnerparticipation?
6 Are clearinstallation instructions included?
7 Does the program m e enhance criticalthinking skills (Problem -solving,

conceptualisation,synthesis ofinform ation)?
8 Are there any noticeable technicaldifficulties (ease ofuse,printing,graphics,

speed)?
9 Is the program m e engaging and interactive?

Te m plate 4: District levelanalysis ofquarterly schoolperform ance
GRADE 3
NO SC HO O L PRINCIPAL LITERACY NUM ERACY

# learners M ean % age 1 2 3 4 # learners M ean % age 1 2 3 4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
NO DIAGNO STIC ANALYSIS ACTIO NS
Targetachievem ent/setting
Tem plate 5: Structure for cum ulative/quarterly tests
ASSESSM ENT TASK (TEST)M ATRIX NUM B ER OF LEARNERS:

GRADE: TIM E: M AX: DATE:
Q UEST M ARKS
NO LO NO ASSESSM ENT STANDARD (W RITE IN FULL)
Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Total
PERCENTAGE 20% 70% 10% 100%

M ARKS
Tem plate 6: Item analysis
NUM BER OF LEARNERS:
Q UEST NO LO AS # W RONG DIAGNO STIC ANALYSIS O F HIGH FREQ UENCY ERRO RS REM EDIAL W ORK
Tem plate 7: Learnerassessm entrecords
READINESS TERM 1 TERM 2 TERM 3 TERM 4 FINAL
CT1 CT2 Q4 Tot CT1 CT2 Q4 Tot CT1 CT2 Q4 Tot CT1 CT2 Q4 Tot
M ean
M edian
M ode
Template 8: Moderator’s report on quarterly test
STATISTICS FOR ALL D IVISIONS IN THE GRADE DATE: GRADE:
GRADE/DIV TEACHER M EAN M EDIAN M O DE BASELINE TARGET DEVIATIO N
Answ ersheets m oderated (10% )
GRADE/DIV NAM E O F LEARNER TO T M ARK BEFO RE M O DERATIO N TO T M ARK AFTER M O DER ATIO N
COMMENTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
M ODERATOR: DATE:
Answ ersheets m oderated (10% )
GRADE/DIV NAM E O F LEARNER TO T M ARK BEFO RE M O DERATIO N TO T M ARK AFTER M O DER ATIO N
COM M EN TS A N D RECOM M EN DA TION S
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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© Departm entofEducation 2008

Advanced Certificate:Education (SchoolM

UNIT 1:LEADING AND M ANAGING A SCHOOL AS A LEARNING ORGANIZATION .............11

UNIT 2:PLAN AND IM PLEMENT A CURRICULUM ............................................................35

UNIT 3:SKILLS AND PROCESSES FOR MANAGING TEACHING AND LEARNING

TEXTS & TEM PLATES.....................................................................................................83

This material is the product of a collaborative endeavour involving representatives of the

In the core ACE m odule on Understanding schoolleadership and m anagem entin

W hat this m odule is about

Link with other m odules

Establishing a learning culture

However, no school is a perfect environment and school managers need to focus

Recom m ended reading

1.2 Preparing yourselfas a curriculum leader

YOUR ROLE AND VISION AS A PRINCIPAL

Reflect on the following issues privately for your journal. Leave

You m ay have w ritten a lotin yourow n w ords,stating freely

1.2.1 Leadership qualities and strategies forinstructionalleadership

We shall examine each of these processes later in this module.

Drawing on Southworth’s three forms of influence above, give one example of

Yourexam ples w illreflectyourexperience and m ay relate to existing,or

Leithwood et al (2006) are undertaking a major study of the impact of school

Basic leadership practices

Influencing staffm otivation,com m itm ent and working

1.3 The context for schoolleadership

Reflect on the strengths and weaknesses of your school’s context. Identify

One of the challenges facing principals in many South African schools is to

TABLE 1:FACTORS SUPPORTING AND INHIBITING EFFECTIVE TEACHIN G AND LEARNING

Factors supporting effective teaching Problem s inhibiting effective teaching

Lively and motivated learners Hungry and demotivated learners

Committed and experienced educators Demotivated and inflexible educators

Good classrooms Overcrowded classrooms

Committed managers Lazy managers

Good team work Weak team work

hard to overcome them. One strategy for school improvement is to support

1.4 Distributed leadership for effective teaching

What leadership teams exist in your school? Use a broad definition of

also be inform alteam s designed to im prove aspects ofschoollife,forexam ple

FACTORS FOR SUCCESSFUL SCHOOLS

This short paper summarises the international evidence on successful school

1.4.2 Teacher leadership

Grant (2006) argues that teacher leadership is critical in the transformation of

Grant (2006) identifies three factors likely to promote teacher leadership:

How w ould you prom ote and develop teacherleadership in yourschool?

Differentform s ofteacherleadership have differentpositive activities and

1.4.3 Stim ulating and m otivating your educators

Read the case study.Answ erthe questions,m aking notes foryourjournal.

The Department of Education, teacher unions, parents, learners and other

 Enabling others to act

Ho w ever,the ability to affectthese kinds ofprocesses w illbe helped

1.5 Establishing a learning culture

Dimmock and Walker (2002) distinguish between societal and organisational

Reflect on the barriers to change identified by Reynolds. Which of these

Top down change is an endemic feature of South African education. National

Bush et al (2008) found widespread evidence of educators, HoDs and