Lecture 2

Chapter 2: The Production of Speech

Sounds
1. Speech Production Mechanism

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1.1 How do we speak?
• Do you know that the process of speech
begins in the brain, like other human
responses, and ends with the organs of
speech?

• The brain sends orders to more than 100

muscles in the body resulting in 14 sounds
per second during ordinary conversation.
Simply….
• Although the mouth is central to speech production,
other speech organs play equally important roles.
• The air is pushed out from the lungs through the
trachea (or the windpipe) to the larynx then the
pharynx.
• Then, the air comes out through the mouth or the nose.
 1.2 At the Larynx
When we speak, the air starts pushing out from the lungs through the
trachea to the larynx, at which it must pass between two small muscular
folds called vocal cords.

• If these vocal cords are apart, the air from the lungs passes freely
through the pharynx to the mouth or the nose voiceless sound is
produced.

• But if they are adjusted, so there is only a narrow passage between

them, the airstream from the lungs will set them vibrating voiced
sound is produced.
1.3 Articulators above the larynx
• The air passage above the larynx, which ends at the mouth and
nostrils, is known as the vocal tract.
• The vocal tract can be divided into:
Nasal tract
 the oral tract, comprising the mouth and pharynx.
Oral tract
 the nasal tract, which leads to the nostrils.
• To learn how the sounds of speech are produced, it is necessary
to become familiar with the different parts of the vocal tract.
 The parts of the vocal tract used to form sounds called
articulators.
 The study of how these articulators are used to produce
sounds called articulatory phonetics. The vocal tract
1.4 The Articulators

uvula

The articulators
1.4.1Larynx
• Larynx is made of two large cartilages. They are hollow
and attached to the top of the trachea.
• Inside the larynx, there are the vocal folds or vocal cords.
The opening between the vocal folds is known as the
glottis. If the vocal folds are apart, the glottis is open; if
they are pressed together, the glottis is closed.
• However, we can produce a very complex range of
changes in the vocal folds and their positions.
1.4.1 Larynx: Positions of the Vocal Folds
a. Wide apart: The vocal folds are wide apart for normal
breathing, and during voiceless consonants like /p, f, s/.
b. Narrow glottis: If the air is passed through narrow glottis,
the result is a voiceless glottal fricative sound /h/.
c. Position for vocal fold vibration: When the edges of the
vocal folds are touching or nearly touching each other, air
passing through the glottis will usually cause vibration as
in voiced consonants like /b, d, g/.
d. Vocal folds tightly closed: If the vocal folds are firmly
pressed together so that air cannot pass between them, the
resulting sound is a voiceless glottal stop /ʔ/.
 1.4.2 Pharynx
• The pharynx is a funnel-shaped muscular
tube that begins just above the larynx.
• It is about 7 cm long in women and about 8
cm in men.
• At its top end, it is divided into two parts:
• Oropharynx: leads to the back of the
oral cavity.
• Nasopharynx: leads to the nasal cavity.
• Consonants made in the pharynx, such as
/ħ/ and /ʕ/, are called pharyngeal sounds.
1.4.3 Velum or soft palate:
•It is the soft part constituting the back of the roof of the
mouth.
•It allows the air to go out through the nose or the mouth. The velum raised
If it is raised, it allows the air to go out through the mouth
as in /k/ and /g/ sounds, and the resultant sound is oral
sound.
If is lowered, it allows the air to go out through the nose as
in /ŋ/, and the resultant sound is nasal sound.
The velum lowered
•A consonant made with the back of the tongue touching the
velum is called velar.
1.4.4 Hard palate: 1.4.5 Alveolar ridge:
• It is often called the “roof of the • It is between the top front teeth and the
mouth”. hard palate.
• It has a smooth, hard surface. • Its surface is covered with little ridges.
• A consonant made with the • Sounds made with the tongue touching the
tongue close to the hard palate, alveolar ridge, such as /t/ and /d/, are called
such as /j/, is called palatal. alveolars.

Alveolar ridge

Hard palate

Soft palate

Uvula
1.4.6 Tongue:
•The tongue is a very important articulator that can be moved into many different
places and takes different shapes.
•It is usual to divide the tongue into different parts, though there are no clear
dividing lines within its structure.
•As shown in the figure, the tongue can be divided into five parts: tip, blade, front,
back, and root.

The tongue

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1.4.7 Teeth: 1.4.8 Lips:
• They are located at the front and the • Lips are important articulators.
sides of the mouth. • If they are pressed together bilabial
• The tongue is in contact with the sounds are made, such as /b/ and /p/.
upper side teeth for most speech • If they are in contact with teeth 
sounds. labiodental sounds are made, such as /f/ and
• Sounds made with the tongue /v/.
touching the front teeth, such as • If they are rounded  rounded back vowels
English /θ/ and /ð/, are called dentals. are produced, such as /u:/.
2.Vowel-Consonant
Distinction

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

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 2.Vowel-Consonant Distinction:
• Sounds are classified as sound classes based on the set of features they share.
• Sounds can be classified phonetically into consonants and vowels based on the articulatory and acoustic
distinction.
The articulatory distinction: (Obstruction)
• Consonants, which may be voiced or voiceless, are made with either complete closure or narrowing of the
vocal tract.
• Vowels are produced with little or no obstruction in the vocal tract and are usually voiced.
The acoustic distinction: (Prominence)
•Vowels are more sonorous than consonants; hence they are perceived as louder and longer.

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 2. Vowel-Consonant Distinction:
• However, if we say that the difference between vowels and consonants is a difference in the way they are
produced, there are some cases of uncertainty or disagreement.
• For example, some English sounds, such as /h/, /w/, and /j/, can be phonetically classified as vowels
because they do not obstruct the airflow.
• Thus, it is important to differentiate between sounds phonologically based on their syllabic distribution.
Vowels form the syllable nucleus, and consonants form the syllable margins, i.e., onset and/or coda.
• Accordingly, English sounds, such as /h/ in ‘hi’, /w/ in ‘we’, and /j/ in ‘yes’, are classified as consonants
because they never form the syllable nucleus.
• Thus, the most important difference between vowels and consonants is not the way that they are made
but their different distributions. The distribution of vowels and consonants are different for each
language.

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2. Vowel-Consonant Distinction:

Articulatory
distinction
Phonetically
Acoustic
Vowel or consonant? distinction

Syllabic
Phonologically
distribution

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3. Phonetic
Parameters
3.1 Consonants:
• Consonants can be described according to three distinctive phonetic
parameters:
1. Voicing: if vocal folds vibrate or not.
2. Place of articulation: where the airstream is obstructed/blocked.
3. Manner of articulation: how the airstream is obstructed/blocked.

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 3.1.1Voicing:
What is voicing?
• When the air passes through the larynx, the vocal cords
take two basic positions:
1. spread apart the air passes unimpeded voiceless
sound.
2. drawn together the air pushes them repeatedly 
vibration voiced sound.
• Consonants can be either voiced or voiceless.

Exercise:
Put your hand on your throat and feel the difference between /s/ and /z/. 21
Classify the following sounds as voiced (+)
or voiceless ( - ):
Sound Voicing Sound Voicing Sound Voicing

p s m

b z n

t f ŋ

d v l

k θ r

g ð w

ʃ tʃ j

ʒ dʒ h

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 3.1.2 Place of Articulation:
• In the pronunciation of a consonant, a primary constriction in the vocal tract is caused by
two articulators.
• This modification occurs at specific places of articulation.
• The major places of articulation are the following:

1. Bilabial
2. Labiodental 6. Palatal
7. Velar
3. Dental
8. Uvular
4. Alveolar 9. Pharyngeal
5. Post alveolar or palato-alveolar 10. glottal
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3.1.2 Place of Articulation:
1. Bilabials:
• Bilabials are sounds in which there is a constriction
between the lower and upper lips.
/p, b/ as in “Ben, pen”
• /p, b, m/ are bilabial sounds.

Articulators:
active= lower lip passive= upper lip
/m/ as in “men”
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3.1.2 Place of Articulation:
2. Labiodentals:
• Labiodentals are sounds in which there is a constriction
between the lower lip and the upper teeth.
• /f, v/ are labiodental sounds.

/f, v/ as in “fan, van”

Articulators:

active= lower lip passive= upper teeth

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3.1.2 Place of Articulation:
3. Dentals:
• Dentals are sounds in which there is a
constriction between the tongue tip and the upper
front teeth.
• /θ, ð/ are dental sounds.

/θ, ð/ as in “thing, this”

Articulators:
active= tongue passive= teeth

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3.1.2 Place of Articulation:
4. Alveolars:

• Alveolars are sounds in which there is a constriction between the

tongue blade or tip and the alveolar ridge. /t, d, s, z, l, r, n/ are
alveolar sounds.

Articulators:
active= tongue passive= alveolar ridge

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3.1.2 Place of Articulation:
4. Alveolars:

/t, d/ as in “two, do” /s, z/ as in “sink, zinc” /l/ as in “lap”

/r/ as in “run” /n/ as “nap”

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3.1.2 Place of Articulation:
5. Post-alveolar, palato-alveolar, or alveopalatal:

• Alveopalatals are sounds in which there is a constriction

between the blade of the tongue and the back of the
alveolar ridge (palato-alveolar region).
• /ʃ, ʒ/ are alveopalatal sounds.

/ʃ, ʒ/ as in “ shy, vision”

Articulators:
active= tongue passive= palato-alveolar

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3.1.2 Place of Articulation:
6. Palatals:
• Palatals are sounds in which there is a constriction
between the front of the tongue and the hard
palate.
• /j/ is a palatal consonant.
/j/ as in “yes”
Articulators:
active= tongue passive= palate

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3.1.2 Place of Articulation:
7. Velars:
• Velars are sounds in which there is a constriction between the back of the tongue and the
velum.
Articulators:
• English velar consonants:/k, g, ŋ, w/.
• Arabic velar consonants: /k, g, w / active= tongue passive= velum
and /x, ɣ/as in /xaɪmah/ ‘tent’, /ɣaɪmah/’cloud’

/k, g/ as in “kit, get” /ŋ/ as in “sing” /w/as in “one” 31

3.1.2 Place of Articulation:
8. Uvular:
• Uvulars are sounds in which there is a constriction
between the back of the tongue and the uvula.
• The Arabic /q / as in /qamar/ ‘moon’ is uvular sounds.

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3.1.2 Place of Articulation:
9. Pharyngeal:
• Pharyngeals are sounds in which there is a
constriction between the root of the tongue and the
back wall of the pharynx.
• The Arabic pharyngeal sounds are /ʕ, ħ/ as in /ʕaːlam/
‘world’, /ħuːt/ ‘whale’ are

Does English have uvular and pharyngeal sounds?

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3.1.2 Place of Articulation:
10. Glottal:

• Glottals are sounds produced at the glottis (the air passage between the

vocal folds). /ʔ, h/ are glottal consonants.

• /ʔ/ is produced when the vocal folds are held tightly together.

• The Arabic word “Ana” /ʔnæ/ meaning “ I ” includes a glottal /ʔ/. Also,

the English word “button” can be pronounced with the glottal /ʔ/ /bʌʔn/.

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3. Manner of Articulation:
Why do we need to classify sounds according to their manner
of articulation?

W W

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3.1.3 Manner of Articulation :
The manner of articulation refers to the way (how) consonants are articulated,
i.e., the way in which the free passage of air is obstructed or disrupted at the place
of articulation of a sound. The major manners of articulation used in speech
production are the following:
1. Stops/plosives
2. Fricatives
3. Affricates
4. Approximants: glides and liquids.
5. Nasals

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 3.1.3 Manner of Articulation :
1. Stops/ Plosives:

• Stops/ plosives are formed with a brief total obstruction (stop or

blockage) of the airstream at some point in the mouth, then released
with a slight plosion.

• English has six stops /p, b, t, d, k, g/.

Place of articulation
Standard Arabic has eight Glottal Uvular Velar Alveolar Bilabial
ʔ q k t d b
stops /b, t, d, t, d, k, q, ʔ/. t d
3.1.3 Manner of Articulation :
Stops/ Plosives: The Four Phases

1. Closing phase: the articulators move to block the airstream.

2. Compression phase: when the compressed air is stopped from escaping.

3. Release phase: when the articulators used to form the blockage are moved to allow air to escape.

4. Post-release phase: what happens immediately after. When the air escapes through the vocal cords
making a sound like /h/, the sound is aspirated. Only voiceless stops word-initially are aspirated as
in ‘tea’, ‘pea’, and ‘key’. However, if voiceless stop is preceded by /s/ word initially as in ‘spy’, it
is not aspirated.

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3.1.3 Manner of Articulation :
Stops/ Plosives:

• The voicing of b, d, g differ according to their position within the word;

 in initial and final position, they are hardly voiced, and any voicing they may have seems to
have no perceptual importance  This make them very similar to p, t, k

• Since p, t, k are produced with more force than b, d, g, it would be better to give the two sets of
plosives names that differentiate them more accurately:

(meaning ‘strong’)
(meaning ‘weak’)
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 3.1.3 Manner of Articulation :
2. Fricatives:

• Fricative are formed by forcing air through a narrow opening,

producing turbulence or friction and thus a hissing or buzzing
sound. Fricatives are continuant consonants whereas stops
are not continuant.
• English has nine fricative sounds: /f, v, ɵ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/.

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 3.1.3 Manner of Articulation :
2. Fricatives:

• Standard Arabic has thirteen fricative sounds:

/f, ɵ, ð, ð, s, s, z, ʃ, x, ɣ, ħ, ʕ, h/.

velar

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3.1.3 Manner of Articulation :
3. Affricates:

Affricates are complex consonants that consist of a stop

followed immediately by a fricative at the same or nearly
the same place of articulation. Place of articulation
Post alveolar
o English has two affricate phonemes /tʃ, dʒ/.
tʃ dʒ

Place of articulation
o Standard Arabic has one affricate phoneme / dʒ /. Post alveolar
dʒ

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3.1.3 Manner of Articulation :
4. Approximants:
• There are four approximants in English and Standard Arabic /l, r, j, w/.
• Approximants are divided into glides and liquids.

4.1 Glides:
• Glides or semivowels are produced with the tongue moving to or from
the position of a vowel.
• English and Standard Arabic have two glides /j, w/.

Place of articulation
Palatal labiovelar
j w
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3.1.3 Manner of Articulation :
4. Approximants:
4.2: Liquids
• Liquids are articulated with a central obstruction in the mouth, but
one which, unlike the obstruction in fricatives or stops, does not
significantly impede the airflow. Liquids are divided into:
• Lateral /l/ is made by letting the airstream flow around the sides
of the tongue as it briefly touches the alveolar ridge.
• Retroflex /r/ is made with the tongue tip raised and curved back
near the alveolar ridge.
• English and Standard Arabic have two liquids /l, r/.
3.1.3 Manner of Articulation :
5. Nasal:

Nasals are produced with the velum lowered which allows the
airstream to flow out through the nose.

o English has three nasal sounds /m, n, ŋ/.

o Standard Arabic has two nasal sounds /m, n/.

How to describe consonants?
According to three distinctive phonetic parameters:
1. Voicing: voiced or voiceless.
2. Place of articulation: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, alveopalatal,
palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, or glottal.
3. Manner of articulation: stop, fricative, affricate, liquid, glide, or nasal.
For example:
/m/ = voiced, bilabial, nasal.
/l/ = voiced, alveolar, liquid.
/k/ = voiceless, velar, stop.

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Exercise:

Fill in the blanks with the correct sound:

• / /: voiceless, bilabial, stop.
• / /: voiced, labiodental, fricative
• / /: voiceless, alveopalatal, affricate.

Describe the following sounds:

• /m/:_________,__________,________.
• /s/:__________,__________,_________.

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3.2 Vowels

Can we classify vowels as voiced/voiceless?

Can we classify vowel according to place and manner of

articulation?

Can we classify vowels as oral/ nasal?

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3.2 Vowels
• Can we classify vowels as voiced/voiceless?
All vowels are voiced, the vocal cords vibrate during their production.
• Can we classify vowel according to place and manner of
articulation?
Vowels are produced with little or no obstruction in the vocal tract.
• Can we classify vowels as oral/ nasal?
All vowels are oral. The velum is raised during their production.
So, in what way do vowels differ from each other?
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 Vowels
Tongue Lip

Height Position Rounding

high/ mid-high front/back rounded/unrounded
mid-low/low

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3.2.1 Tongue Height:
• Tongue height refers to the vertical distance between the
upper surface of the tongue and the palate.
 /i:/ as in see close/high vowel: the tongue is held up
close to the roof of the mouth.
 /æ/ as in cat open/low vowel: the distance between the
surface of the tongue and the roof of the mouth is greater.
• Tongue height can be changed by:
1. moving the tongue up or down. Tongue Height

2. moving the lower jaw up or down

3.2.2 Tongue Position:

Tongue position refers to the part of the tongue raised

highest in the horizontal axis.
/i:/ as in see, /æ/ as in cat front vowels: the front part
of the tongue is the highest.
/ɑ:/ as in calm /u:/ as in too back vowel: the back part
of the tongue is the highest.

Tongue Position
How to describe vowels?
• Based on how the previous four vowels differ from each other; we can describe
the vowels in a simple diagram.

X this diagram is rather inaccurate.

• Phoneticians have developed a set of vowels which are arranged in a close-open,

front-back diagram similar to the one above but which are not the vowels of any
particular language.
• These vowels are referred to as the cardinal vowels.
 Primary Cardinal Vowels
• Cardinal vowels are a standard reference system, and people being trained in phonetics at an advanced
level have to learn to make them accurately and recognize them correctly.

• Cardinal vowels can be located on a four-sided figure (a quadri­lateral of the shape as seen in the Figure).

• The vowels in this Figure are the so-called primary cardinal vowels;
most familiar to the speakers of most European languages.

• Secondary cardinal vowels; are less familiar.

• In this course cardinal vowels are printed within square brackets [ ] to

distinguish them clearly from English vowel sounds.
3.2.3 Lip Rounding:
Lip rounding refers to the shape of the lips. It has three
possibilities:

1.Rounded: the corners of the lips are brought together and

pushed forward. E.g. /u:/ as in too.

2.Spread: the corners of the lips are moved away from

each other, as for a smile. E.g. /i:/ as in see.
Lip Rounding
3.Neutral: the lips are not noticeably rounded or spread.
E.g./ɜ:/ as in bird.
How to describe vowels?
• Vowels can be described according to three distinct
phonetic parameters:
tongue height: high, mid, low
 tongue position: front, central , back.
 lip rounding: round , unround.
/u:/: high, back, rounded.
/æ/: low, front, unrounded.
/ɜ:/: mid, back, unrounded.

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Why to use a system based on parameters to
describe sounds?
A system based on parameters:
enables us to describe the sounds of any language in a reasonably economical
and uniform manner:
/p/: voiceless, bilabial, stop.
allows us to see at a glance what the significant differences between any two
sounds are:
/ θ/: voiceless, labiodental, fricative.
/ ð/: voiced, labiodental, fricative.
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Next Week
Read
1. Ch.2: The Production of Speech Sounds: 2.3 English short vowels
2. Ch.3: Long vowels, diphthongs, and triphthongs

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