Sensors For Industrial Robotics

Unit 1:
Sensor Fundamental
 Contents

 Overview of sensors
 Role of sensors
 Types of sensors
 Application of sensors
 Characteristics of sensors
 Principle of sensors
 Sensor classification
 WHAT ARE SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS?

 Essential to any data acquisition application is a transducer sensor that converts real-world
phenomena such temperature, current, pressure, etc.
 Instrument Society of America defines a sensor or transducer as a device which provides a
usable output in response to a specified measurand. Here, the output is defined as an
‘electrical quantity’ and measurand as a ‘physical quantity, property, or condition which is
measured.’
What are Transducers
 A device that converts one form of energy into another.
Data Acquisition System
 Roles of sensors
 Sensors and transducers are used in automation in construction, domestic appliances,
industries, transport, space exploration, defence equipment, health services, and other
applications.
 Advances in processing and computation have opened up opportunities for very
accurate control of plants, processes, and systems. Sensors/Transducers have helped
achieve substantial accuracy and control as automation of any kind begins with the
measurement of certain system parameters of which sensors and transducers form an
essential and indispensable part.
 Industrial process monitoring has become possible by appropriate and accurate sensing
of the relevant variables. In fact, industrial growth moves hand-in-hand with the growth
of the measurement science and technology.
 Growing technologies require increased accommodation and as a consequence,
conventional disciplines in the engineering and science faculties have accommodated
new developments.
 Types of Transducers
 Active transducers
 Active transducer is a device which converts the given non-electrical energy into electrical
energy by itself. Thermocouple, Photovoltaic cell and more are the best examples of the
transducers

 Passive transducers
 Passive transducer is a device which converts the given non-electrical energy into
electrical energy by external force. Resistance strain gauge, Differential Transformer are
the examples for the Passive transducers.
Types of sensors
Classification
Emerging Sensor technology
 Characteristics
 Accuracy: specified by inaccuracy or usually error

 Precision: describes how far a measured quantity is reproducible as also how close it is to
the true value. The term ‘repeatability’ is close to precision which is the difference in
output y at a given value of the input x when obtained in two consecutive measurements.
 Resolution: is defined as the smallest incremental change in the input that would produce a
detectable change in the output. This is often expressed as percentage of the measured range, MR.
The measured range is defined as the difference of the maximum input and the minimum input
 Threshold: At the zero value condition of the measurand, the smallest input change that produces a
detectable output is called the threshold.
 Sensitivity: It is the ratio of the incremental output to incremental input
 Selectivity and specificity: The output of a sensor may change when afflicted by environmental
parameters or other variables and this may appear as an unwanted signal. The sensor is then said to
be non-selective.
 Output impedance: It is a characteristic to be considered on individual merit. It causes great
restriction in interfacing, specifically in the choice of the succeeding stage.
 Isolation and grounding: Isolation is necessary to eliminate or at least reduce undesirable electrical,
magnetic, electromagnetic, and mechanical coupling among various parts of the system and
between the system and the environment. Similarly, grounding is necessary to establish a common
node among different parts of the system with respect to which potential of any point in the system
remains constant.
 Nonlinearity: Deviation from linearity, which itself is defined in terms of superposition
principles, is expressed as a percentage of the full scale output at a given value of the
input. Nonlinearity can, however, be specified in two different ways, namely (i) deviation
from best fit straight line obtained by regression analysis, and (ii) deviation from a straight
line joining the end points of the scale
 Hysteresis: It is the difference in the output y of the sensor for a given input x when x
reaches this value in upscale and downscale directions

 Minimum Detectable Signal (MDS): Noise in a sensor occurs because of many reasons—
internal sources or fluctuations due to externally generated mechanical and
electromagnetic influences. Noise is considered in detail, on individual merits and often an
equivalent noise source is considered for test purposes.
 Classification of Sensors in ROBOTS
 A wide variety of devices are used by robots to obtain information. They include not only
transducers for physical quantities such as microphones for sounds, but also data
processing input devices such as keyboard for textual information and specialized sensors.
Sensors in robots are classified as :-
 Exteroceptors or External Sensors (for the measurement of robot’s environment
parameters)
 Proprioceptors or Internal Sensors (for the measurement of robot’s internal parameters)
 Exteroceptors or External Sensors
 Exteroceptors are sensors that measure the positional or force-type interaction of the robot
with its environment.
 External Sensors categorized as :-
 Contact Sensors
 Non Contact Sensors
 Contact Sensors
 Contact sensing is one of the most basic requirement for any manipulator interacting
physically with the environment in a non-structured manner. It is the ability of the robot to
determine the shape, size, weight, or even the surface texture of an object by touching it.
 The functions of contact sensors in controlling manipulation may be classified into the
following basic material handling and assembly operations:
 Searching –detecting a part by sensitive touch sensors on the hand exterior without moving
the part.
 Recognition –determining the identity, position, and orientation of a part, again without
moving it, by sensitive touch sensors with high spatial resolution.
 Grasping –acquiring the part by deformable, roundish fingers, with sensors mounted on
their surfaces.
 Moving –placing, joining, or inserting a part with the aid of force sensors.
 Proprioceptors or Internal Sensors
 Encoder:-
 Encoders are digital position transducers, which are the most convenient for computer
interfacing
 Strain gauge:-
 Used to estimate the flexibility of the robots mechanical structure .
 Mounted on specially profiled shafts are also used to measure the joint shaft torques.
 Types of Temperature Sensors
Temperature sensing can be done either through direct contact with the heating
source or remotely, without direct contact with the source using radiated energy
instead. There are a wide variety of temperature sensors on the market today,
including Thermocouples, Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs), Thermistors,
Infrared, and Semiconductor Sensors.
 Thermocouples
 Thermocouples Principles: A thermocouple is a junction formed from two dissimilar metals. A
temperature difference will cause a voltage to be induced
 Thermocouples are widely used for temperature measurement because they are inexpensive,
rugged and reliable, and they can be used over a wide temperature range.
 In addition, they can be used over a wide temperature range. If we want to measure the output
voltage from a thermocouple, every connection of different materials made in the thermocouple
loop for measuring devices, extensions leads, and so on will contribute to the total an emf,
depending on the difference in materials and various junction temperatures.
 RTD Resistance Temperature Detector
 An RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) is a sensor whose resistance changes as its temperature
changes. The resistance increases as the temperature of the sensor increases.
 The resistance vs temperature relationship is well known and is repeatable over time. An RTD is a
passive device. It does not produce an output on its own.
 External electronic devices are used to measure the resistance of the sensor by passing a small
electrical current through the sensor to generate a voltage. Typically 1 mA or less measuring
current, 5 mA maximum without the risk of self-heating.
RTD Sensors are available in a number of different lead wire configurations. The most
common configuration is the single element, three lead configuration. Schematics of the
available lead wire configurations are shown below:
 The four-wire RTD
 The four-wire RTD has high precision over long distances; but unfortunately high cost. Current
loop is the correct configuration for the 4-wire RTD.
 The current has the same value at every point of the current loop. PT-100 is one form of the RTD. It
is made of the platinum wire and has the resistance of 100 Ω at 0C°.
 The platinum wire is wounded on a glass or ceramic insulator, which is then installed within a glass
or stainless steel protection tube. The gap between the insulator and the protection tube is filled
with ceramic or cement. The protection tube is used to protect the sensing element in various
measuring environments.
 NTC Negative Temperature Coefficient
 NTC stands for "Negative Temperature Coefficient". NTC thermistors are resistors with a negative
temperature coefficient, which means that the resistance decreases with increasing temperature. They are
primarily used as resistive temperature sensors and current-limiting devices. The temperature sensitivity
coefficient is about five times greater than that of silicon temperature sensors (silistors) and about ten
times greater than that of resistance temperature detectors (RTDs). NTC sensors are typically used in a
range from −55 to +200 °C.
 The non-linearity of the relationship between resistance and temperature exhibited by NTC resistors
posed a great challenge when using analog circuits to accurately measure temperature. However, rapid
development of digital circuits solved that problem through enabling computation of precise values by
interpolating lookup tables or by solving equations which approximate a typical NTC curve.
 PROXIMITY SENSORS
 A proximity sensor detects an objects when the object approaches within the detection range and
boundary of the sensor.
 Proximity sensors include all sensor that perform non contact detection in comparison to sensors
such as limit switch, that detects the object by physically contacting them.
 Proximity sensors are used in various facets of manufacturing for detecting the approach of
metal and non metal objects.
 They are used for sequence control in technical installations, monitoring, and safe- guarding
processes. In this context, sensors are used for early, quick and safe detection of faults in the
production process.
 The prevention of damage to man and machine is another important factor to be considered. A
reduction in downtime of machinery can also be achieved by means of sensors, because failure is
quickly detected and signaled.
 There are four types of sensors- Inductive proximity sensors, Capacitive proximity sensors.
Magnetic proximity sensors, Optical proximity sensors.
 Inductive Proximity Sensors
 Inductive proximity sensors are designed to generate an electromagnetic field. When a metal
object enters this field, surface currents, known as eddy currents, are induced in the metal
object.
 These eddy currents drain energy from the electromagnetic field (causes a load on the
sensor) resulting in a loss of energy in the oscillator circuit and, consequently, a reduction in
the amplitude of oscillation. The trigger circuit detects this change and generates a signal to
switch the output ON or OFF.
 Their operating principle is based on a coil and high frequency oscillator that creates a field
in the close surroundings of the sensing surface. The presence of metal in the operating area
causes a change in the oscillation amplitude.
 This change is identified by a threshold circuit, which changes the output of the sensor. The
operating distance of the sensor depends on the coil’s size as well as the target’s shape, size
and material
Inductive Proximity Sensors
 Capacitive proximity sensors
 Capacitive sensors are used for non-contact detection of metallic objects & nonmetallic objects
(liquid, plastic, wooden materials and so on). Capacitive proximity sensors use the variation of
capacitance between the sensor and the object being detected. When the object is at a preset distance
from the sensitive side of the sensor, an electronic circuit inside the sensor begins to oscillate. The
rise or fall of such oscillation is identified by a threshold circuit that drives an amplifier for the
operation of an external load.
 Capacitive proximity sensors consist of four main components: capacitive probe or plate, oscillator,
signal level detector, output switching device
 However, capacitive proximity sensors react to alterations in an electrostatic field. The probe behind
the sensor face is a capacitor plate. When power is applied to the sensor, an electrostatic field is
generated that reacts to changes in capacitance caused by the presence of a target. When the target is
outside the electrostatic field, the oscillator is inactive. As the target approaches, a capacitive
coupling develops between the target and the capacitive probe. When the capacitance reaches a
specified threshold, the oscillator is activated, triggering the output circuit to switch states between
ON or OFF,
 Magnetic proximity sensors
 Magnetic proximity sensors are noncontact proximity devices utilize Hall Effect principles.
Magnetic proximity sensors are characterized by the possibility of large switching distances and
availability with small dimensions. They detect magnetic objects (usually permanent magnets),
which are used to trigger the switching process.
 \Magnetic proximity sensors are actuated by the presence of a permanent magnet. Their operating
principle is based on the use of “reed contacts”, which are thin plates hermetically sealed in a
glass bulb with inert gas.
 The presence of a magnetic field forces the thin plates to touch each other causing an electrical
contact. The surface of plate has been treated with a special material particularly suitable for low
current or high inductive circuits.
 Optical Proximity Sensors
 Optical Proximity Sensors In its most basic form, a photoelectric sensor can be thought of as a
switch where the mechanical actuator or lever arm function is replaced by a beam of light.
 light beam the device can be used in applications requiring sensing distances from less than 2.54
cm to one hundred meters or more. All photoelectric sensors operate by sensing a change in the
amount of light received by a photo detector.
 The change in light allows the sensor to detect the presence or absence of the object, its size,
shape, reflectivity, opacity, translucence, or color. There are a vast number of photoelectric
sensors from which to choose. Each offers a unique combination of sensing performance, output
characteristics, and mounting options.
 Piezoelectric Sensor
 A piezoelectric sensor is a device that can convert various physical forces, including
pressure, vibration and temperature, into electrical charges that can be measured.
Piezoelectric sensors are in various electronic objects such as flow meters, sensors, ranging
sensors and high-pitch buzzers.
 Piezoelectric sensors come in multiple shapes depending on the structure they’re in.
They’re made of either ceramic or crystal materials and are small, lightweight,
hypersensitive and easy to mount into various appliances and equipment. Their properties
make them popular devices for numerous industrial applications.
 Piezoelectric sensors are present in several types of daily equipment. Piezoelectric devices
can detect vibrations in alarm systems and alert you against intruders. They can help
doctors measure pulses, and they can help industries such as automotive OEMs monitor
motor bearings for wear and tear, predicting potential equipment failure. Piezoelectric
sensors can even aid in energy harvesting.
 Potentiometer
 Potentiometer Definition: A potentiometer (also known as a pot or potmeter) is defined as a 3-
terminal variable resistor used to control the flow of electric current by adjusting resistance.
 Working Principle: Potentiometers work by moving a sliding contact across a uniform resistance,
adjusting the voltage output based on the contact’s position.
 Types of Potentiometers: There are two main types of potentiometers: rotary, which adjusts by
rotating, and linear, which adjusts by sliding linearly.
 Digital Potentiometers: Digital potentiometers offer higher accuracy and reliability than mechanical
ones, using electronic controls to vary resistance.
 Applications: Potentiometers are used for comparing the emf of battery cells, measuring internal
resistance, and adjusting voltages in various circuits.
 Signal conditioning
 Signal conditioning is the process of manipulating an analog signal to make it compatible
with the next stage of processing. It can also involve converting an electrical or mechanical
signal into another signal. The goal of signal conditioning is to make the signal easier to
read and use for data acquisition or machine control.