AGRICULTURE AND

FISHERY ARTS
 AGRICULTURE
• Agriculture- it is an art and science of systematic production
of useful plants and animals for human consumption.

Why is it considered an art?

• Because of the aesthetic importance of plants.
Why is it considered a science?
• Because of the involvement of scientific knowledge for better
production.
 IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE
• Source of Livelihood
• Source of Food as well as Fodder
• Source of foreign exchange (export and import)
• Marketable Surplus
• Source of Raw Material for industries
• Great Employment Opportunities
• Economic Development
• Food Security
• The key to Healthy Biosphere
FARMING
- Cultivation of land for the production of crops,
raising of farm animal for egg, milk and meat,
production of fruit and other horticultural and
agronomical crops.

- FARMING – The Process

- FARM – The Land
- FARMER – The Person
 Branches of AGRICULTURE

Horticulture
Propagation of fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants

Divisions
a.Olericulture – growing of vegetables
b.Pomology – planting of fruits trees
c.Floriculture – propagation of flowering plants
d.Landscape Horticulture – growing of ornamental plants
for mass effect in garden.
9 Major categories of vegetable
crops
• root (e.g. carrot, turnip)
• bulb (e.g. onion, garlic)
• stem (e.g. asparagus)
• flower (e.g. cauliflower, broccoli)
• tuber (e.g. potato)
• immature fruit (e.g. cucumbers, green peas, sweet corn)
• mature fruit (e.g. tomato, squash)
• leaf (e.g. cabbage, lettuce, spinach)
• petiole (e.g. celery)
• seed (e.g. bean)
Animal Industry
raising of animals for meat, milk, and other raw products for
the industry.
Aquaculture (Fishery)
the farming of fresh water and salt water organisms including
mollusks, crustaceans and aquatic plants.
Agricultural Business/Economics
business and marketing aspects.
Farm Engineering
application of engineering techniques to agriculture
Plant Industry
growing of plants that are used for staple crops and fiber crop.
Staple food
is one that is regularly consumed in large quantities as to form the basis
of a traditional diet and which serves as a major source of energy and
nutrients.
Fiber crops
are field crops grown for their fibers, which are traditionally used to
make paper, cloth, or rope. They are organized into 3 main groups:
• textile fibers (used in production of cloth)
• cordage fibers (used in production of rope)
• filling fibers (used to stuff upholstery and mattresses). They are a type
of natural fiber.
Major Staple Crops
A. Cereal Crops

• Barley (Hordeum vulgare)

• Corn , maize, mais (Zea mays)
• Oat (Avena sativa)
• Rice, palay (Oryza sativa)
• Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)

• Wheat
bread wheat (Triticum aestivum)
durum wheat (Triticum turgidum)
B. Root and Tuber Crops
• Arrowroot, araro (Maranta arundinacea)
• Cassava, tapioca, manioc, kamoteng kahoy, balanghoy (Manihot esculenta)
• Potato, white potato, irish potato, patatas (Solanum tuberosum)
• Sweet potato, camote (Ipomoea batatas)
• Taro, gabi, ordinary taro, cocoyam, dalo, talo, arum, dasheen, (Colocasia
esculenta)
• Yam, greater yam, water yam, ubi (Dioscorea alata)
• Yautia, tannia, karlang, palawan, bisol, takudo (Xanthosoma sagittifolium)
BASIC ROOT CROP PLANTING

Sweet Potato
• Or Kamote can play a vital role in alleviating the food shortage
problem in developing countries like ours. It is a good source of pro-vitamin
A ( carotene) and vitamin C. It is also potential substitute for yellow corn in
the formulation of feeds. In the Philippines, many families in the rural areas
are using sweet potato as their staple food. Kamote tops are rich in vitamins
and proteins.
Cassava (Manihot esculenta)
• Belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It is locally known as kamoteng
Kahoy and Balinghoy. In the Philippines, cassava is largely used as food and
animal feed by backyard livestock raisers. Its industrial uses are varied, but it
is more importantly used in producing starch, glucose, and alcohol.
Yam (Ube)
• Ube (Dioscorea alata) is the most widely distributed yam in most
parts of the tropics. In the Philippines, ube is grown both as a backyard and
commercial crop. Its fleshy roots are relished by Filipinos in so many ways. It
also considered as a famine crop because it is used as staple food in the
absence of rice or sweet potato in some plants of the country.
• UBI (Dioscorea alata L.) or water yam is a vine which produces both aerial tubers called bulbils and
underground tubers or roots. The bulbils, weighing a few grams to over a kilogram, come out of the
leaf axiles three (3) months after planting. On the other hand, the underground tuber, weighing from
one (1) kilogram to six (6) kilograms can be harvested six months after planting.
• The ubi root has 70 percent moisture and 28 percent starch. It also contains traces of fat, crude
protein, sugar, crude fiber, ash and vitamin C, B1 and B2.
Ubi Varieties
• 1. VU-1 (BASCO UBI)
2. VU-2 (ZAMBALES UBI) – LA 167
3. VU-3 (LEYTE) – LA 100
4. KINAMPAY VARIETY – Kinampay, known for its sweet aroma and good taste, is dubbed as the
“Queen of Philippine Yams”. It has smooth and round roots. Ubing Kinampay is classified into five (5)
varieties, original kinampay, kabus-ok, tamisan, binanag, binato.
• Other local cultivars are Binalog, Ubsah, Appari, Negro, Alabat, Kameral I and Kameral II.
C. Fruit Crops
• Banana, bananier, pisang, saging, (Musa spp.)
• Breadfruit, rimas, kulo (Artocarpus altilis)
• Plantain, cooking banana, saging, cardaba, saba (Musa spp.)
D. Palms
• Sago palm, sagu, landang (Metroxylon sagus)
• Sweet palm, kaong (Arenga pinnata)
E. Pulses
• Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)
• Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)
• Lentil (Lens culinaris ssp. culinaris)
• Pea (Pisum sativum)
• Soybean (Glycine max)
PLANTS
- Multicellular organisms that typically produce their own food
from inorganic matter through the process of photosynthesis.
Importance of Plants
1.Source of food, shelter, and medicine
2.Source of oxygen
3.Slow the wind speed
4.Help cool the environment
BASIC PLANT PARTS
A. Root – underground part of plants
Functions
a.Holds/anchor the plant in place
b.Absorbs water and nutrients
c.Transports water and nutrients to the stem
d.Stores food and water
 Types of Roots System
a.Tap Root System – primary root grows down from the stem with some small secondary
roots forming(carrots and turnips)
b.Fibrous Root System – small lateral roots that spread out just below the soil’s surface
( ex. Corns and beans)
Parts of Roots
A.Epidermis – outermost layer of cells.
B.Cortex – tissue inside epidermis that stores starch and other substances necessary for
the growth of the root.
C.Root cap - provides protection for the root tip
D.Root hairs – site of absorption
E.Vascular tissue – within cortex, contain cells that transport water, nutrients, and
minerals to all parts of the plants.
B. STEM – allows the plant to grow upright, and is a transport system for the
water and minerals coming from the ground.
Functions
a.Movement of water and minerals from the roots upward and movement of
manufactured food down
b.Support the leaves and reproductive structures
c.Used for food storage and reproduction of plants involving cuttings d. Green
stems manufacture food just as leaves do
Types of Stem
d.Herbaceous – soft and bendable
e.Woody – hard and do not bend easily
Stem Structure
a) External Stem Structure
Node – area from where side branches and leaves develop
Internode – area between nodes
Lenticels – small holes located in the stem
Leaf scar – shows where leaf was attached;
b) Internal Stem Structure
Phloem – bark, carries manufactured foods down
Xylem – wood, carries water and minerals up
Cambium – separates the phloem and xylem
C. LEAF – manufacturing organ of the plant
Functions
a.Conducts photosynthesis
b.Conducts transpiration
c.Storage of water
d.Defense system in some plants
e.Anchorage in some plant
Types of LEAF
a.Simple Leaf – undivided blade with a single auxiliary
bud at the base of petiole

b.Compound Leaf – blade divided into leaflets

c.Peltate Leaves – petioles that are attached to the

middle of the blade

d.Perfoliate Leaves – sessile leaves that surround and

are pierced by stems.
Parts of Leaf
External anatomy:
a.Blade – main body
b.Petiole – attaches the blade to the stem
c.Midrib – large central vein
d.Apex – tip of the leaf
e.Base – attaches to petiole
f.Margin – edge of the leaf
g.Stipule – two appendages at the base of the petiole
Internal anatomy
1.Epidermis - responsible for gas and water exchanges
2.Stomata – opening in epidermis where gas and water exchange
3.Mesophyll – photosynthesis occurs

Venation: arrangement of veins in a leaf

Types of Venation
a.Netted Venation – one or few prominent midveins
b.Parallel Venation – veins are parallel to one another
c.Dichotomous Venation – no midrib or large veins
SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
Flower
• the reproductive structure of flowering plants: also called bloom/blossom
Pistil - also called carpel, it is the female part which is consists
of the following:
• Stigma- a sticky surface at the end of the pistil tat catches
pollen grains.
• Style- the neck of the pistil; the structure between the ovary
and stigma
• Ovary- where the ovule resides
• Ovule- where the eggs are produces and seeds develop
Stamen- the male part which is consists of:
• Anther- produces and holds up the anther
• Filament- stalk that holds up the anther
Petals- highly colored part of the flower, may contain perfume and nectar
glands.
• Corolla- the collection of petals in a flower.
Sepals- small green structures on the base that protect the flower bud
• Calyx- is a group of sepals
Pedicel- the stem of the flower
Receptacle- the place where floral organs are attached and originate
CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWER

• Complete Flower- 4 basic parts are present

• In order for a flower to be considered complete, it must have sepals,
petals, at least one stamen and at least one pistil. Complete
flowers have both male and female parts, which offer reproductive
benefits.
• Incomplete Flower- 3 basic parts are present
• Any flower missing one or more of those four crucial parts is
considered to be incomplete.
• Perfect Flower- 2 sexual reproductive organ are present.
• Flowers that contain a functioning male part and a functioning
female part are referred to by botanists as "perfect.“
• Imperfect Flower- 1 sexual reproductive organ is present.
• Flowers that contain only one sex organ "imperfect." If the
stamen is missing, or under-developed, the flower is considered
female. Such flowers are also called pistillate flowers.
FRUIT
is the seed-bearing structure in flowering
plants (also known as angiosperms) formed
from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the
means by which angiosperms disseminate
seeds.
CLASIFICATION OF FRUITS

• Aggregate- develops from a single flower with many ovaries.

• Multiple- fruit develops from group of tightly clustered flowers.
Multiple fruits, also called collective fruits, are fruiting bodies
formed from a cluster of fruiting flowers, the inflorescence.
• Simple- A fruit that develops from a single ovary in a single
flower. Simple fruits may be fleshy or dry.
Seeds
the product of the ripened ovule gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occur
after fertilization.
Seed Structure
• Embryo- an immature plant from which a new plant grows under proper conditions.
• Cotelydons- food supply of the embryo.
• Seed coat or Testa- outer covering of the seed; a tough, hard, outer coat, the testa
protects the seed from fungi, bacteria and insects, it has to be split open by the
radicle before germination can proceed.
• Hilum- the scar left on the seed coat
• Micropyle- tiny pore in the testa opposite the tip of the radical; it admits water to the
embryo before active germination.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS
 Classification of Plants
1. Angiosperms (Flowering Plants)
 Dicotyledons a flowering plant with an
embryo that bears two cotyledons (seed
leaves). Dicotyledons constitute the larger of
the two great divisions of flowering plants,
and typically have broad, stalked leaves with
netlike veins
 Monocotyledons commonly referred to as
monocots, are flowering plants whose seeds
typically contain only one embryonic leaf, or
cotyledon.
 PLANT PROPAGATION
PROPAGATION - is the process of creating new plants from a variety of sources: seeds,
cuttings, bulbs and other plant parts.
Plant propagation can also refer to the artificial or natural dispersal of plants.

TYPES OF PLANTS PROPAGATION

SEXUAL
• SEED
ASEXUAL
• GRAFTING
• TISSUE CULTURE
• CUTTINGS
 Importance of Plant Propagation
Plant Propagation is important because
 It multiplies the different species in large number.
 It protects the plant species which are endangered
 It improves the characteristics and quality of the plants.
 It produces quality and healthy plants on commercial base
TYPES OF PROPAGATION
A. Sexual Propagation of Plant
 In this method, plant propagation is done through seeds. It is
also known as seed propagation.
 Seeds are produced as a result by sexual reproduction in
fruits of the plants.
 A plant grown from seed may have different characteristics
than its parent tree
 Some plants may not have seeds
 GROWTH HABIT OF THE PLANTS

• Herbs- succulent plants with self-supporting stem

• Vines- herbaceous climbing plants without self-supporting stems.
• Lianas- woody climbing plants which they need support of other plants
for vertical support to climb.
• Shrubs- small trees or tree-like plants but less than 5 meters in height.
• Trees- plants having erect and continuous growth with large
development of woody tissues with a single distinct stem or trunk.
 ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION
• Aquatic, or Hydrophyte Plants- plants that can grow in water or waterlogged soil.
• Epiphyte Plants- plants that grow above grounds on the other plants but are not
parasitic.
• Halophyte- A halophyte is a plant that grows in waters of high salinity, coming into
contact with saline water through its roots or by salt spray, such as in saline semi-
deserts, mangrove swamps, marshes and sloughs and seashores.
• Lithophytic Plants- plants that are grown on rock or on rocky terrain with little
humus, absorbing nutrients from the atmosphere, rain and decaying matter which
accumulate on rocks.
• Mesophyte Plants - are terrestrial plants which are adapted to neither a
particularly dry nor particularly wet environment.
• Parasitic Plants- plant that obtains all or part of its nutrition from another plant
(the host) without contributing to the benefit of the host and, in some cases,
causing extreme damage to the host.
• Saprophyte- A saprophyte or saprotroph is an organism which gets its energy from
dead and decaying organic matter.
• Sciophytes- are shade-loving trees or plants. These plants have larger
photosynthetic units than sun plants or heliophytes. Sciophytes are also known as
photophobous plants and they reach their saturation level in only 20% sunlight.
• Terrestrial Plants- A terrestrial plant is a plant that grows on or
in or from land.
• Xerophytic Plants- A xerophyte is a species of plant that has
adaptations to survive in an environment with little liquid
water, such as a desert or an ice- or snow-covered region in the
Alps or the Arctic.
HERBAL PLANTS
• Sambong or blumea camphor (Blumea balsamifera)
This plant is known for its useful traits in treating kidney stones, wounds and cuts. It can be
helpful as well in healing rheumatism, colds, coughs and acts as an anti-diarrhea, anti-spasms.
• Akapulko or ringworm bush or Acapulco (Cassia alata)
In most places, this plant is called as bayabas-bayabasan and it’s an effective treatment for tinea
infections, insect bites, ringworms, eczema, scabies and itchiness.
• Ampalaya or bitter gourd (Momordica charantia)
The plant is originally a vegetable eaten alongside fish and meat dishes as meals. It might have
a bitter taste but it is endorsed by the DOH because of its healing power on diabetes,
hemorrhoids, coughs, burns and scalds.
• Bawang or Garlic (Alium sativum)
Bawang is a staple in the Philippine alternative medicines. Aside from being useful in
the kitchen, it also can give benefits to your body. It has been proven to heal infection
because of its anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, and it is also known to
reduce cholesterol levels.
• Bayabas leaves or guava (Psidum guajava)
Bayabas is a fruit equally delicious and helpful for the body. It’s used as a herbal
medicine for treating open wounds and keeping the intestines healthy.
• Lagundi or five-leaved chaste tree (Vitex negundo)
This plant is effective in reducing cough, colds, and fever. It’s also known to treat
asthma, pharyngitis, rheumatism, dyspepsia, boils, and diarrhea.
• Tsaang cubat or scorpion bush (Ehretia microphylla)
Known as “wild tea” in the herbal world, this is used to treat skin allergies like
eczema, scabies, and itchiness in childbirth.
• Pansit-pansitan/ulasimang bato or clear weed or silver bush (Peperomia pellucida)
This herbal plant is powerful in treating arthritis and gout. The folklore also believes
that it can be a medicine for eye inflammation, high blood pressure and kidney
problems.
• Yerba buena or mint (Clinopodium douglasii)
It’s popular as peppermint and can be an analgesic to relieve body aches and pain due
to rheumatism and gout. This can also go as a pain reliever for stomach and tooth
ache.
• Malunggay or horseradish tree (Moringa Oleifera)
Malunggay can be mixed with chicken in soups and beans. It’s considered as a super
food that Filipinos use to increase milk in lactating women.
• Tawa-tawa or asthma Plant (Euphoria Hirta)
The DOH recommended this plant as effective treatment for dengue fever. In 2014, it
was listed as beneficial when it comes to maintaining the upper respiratory and
increasing the blood platelet count.
• Banaba or giant crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia speciosa)
This herbal plant can be used to treat diabetes and kidney failure, as well as obesity
and high fever.
In folklore, banaba is used to prevent constipation, kidney inflammation, and urinary
dysfunctions.
Advantages of Sexual Propagation
1.This is very simple and easy method of propagation.
2.Some species of trees, ornamental annuals and vegetables which cannot be
propagated by asexual means should be propagated by this method. E.g. Papaya,
Marigold, Tomato etc.
3.Hybrid seeds can be developed by this method.
4.New varieties of crops are developed only by sexual method of propagation.
5.Root stocks for budding and grafting can be raised by this method.
6.The plants propagated by this method are long lived and can resistance to water
stress.
7.Transmission of viruses can be prevented by sexual method.
8.Seed can be transported and stored for longer time for propagation.
Disadvantages of Sexual Propagation
1.Characteristics of seedling propagated by this method are not
genetically true to type to that of their mother plant.
2.Plants propagated by sexual method requires long period for
fruiting.
3.Plants grow very high, so they are difficult for intercultural
practices like spraying, harvesting etc.
4.The plants which have no seeds cannot be propagated by this
method. E.g. Banana, fig, Jasmine, Rose etc.
Selection of Seeds- one of the primary requisite for
successful farm crop production is good quality seed. A
seed is fertilized ripened ovule of a flowering plant that
contains an embryo capable of germination to produce a
new plant.
Factors to be considered in selecting seeds
• Viability- seeds that can germinate and produce strong healthy plants that are considered viable
seeds.
• Damage free- seeds should be whole and free from any damage either by insects or mechanical
elements.
• True to type- seeds should be of the same variety and should have uniform shapes and sizes.
• Free from seed borne diseases- seed should be come from disease free plants ( free from pest and
pathogens). A number of diseases could be seed transmitted.
• Free from weed mixture- seed should be free from weeds and other foreign or inert matter
• Mature- seeds should come from fully ripened fruits. Mature seeds have fully developed embryos.
They can be distinguished by their size, texture and color.
Testing the viability of Seed
Seed quality testing involves measuring, examining, evaluating,
and checking seeds to determine conformity with standards of
requirements.
Seed Testing- is done to assess seed lot attributes and determine
overall quality and value for seedling production and storage.
Seed must be tested before planting to make sure that they will
be germinate and produce strong and healthy plants.
 Common Methods of Testing Seed Viability
• Dish Method- also known as dinner plate method which the germination is done thru
placing the seeds in plate line the dish with moistened, tissue paper, then place a
number of seeds. Cover with another sheet of moist tissue paper. Allow the seeds to
germinate for several days. Count the number of seeds that germinated.
• Rag-doll Method- The ragdoll germination test involves placing a known number of
seeds in a moist paper towel, rolling up the towel and seeds to place inside a plastic
bag, and assessing the number of seeds that germinate over the next few days.
• Seed box Method- plant a number of seeds in a seed box and water them. After
several days, count the seeds that germinated and compute for the percentage of
germination using the formula.
 LAND PREPARATION
• Land preparation is done in accordance with the requirement of crops, whether they grow under
dry land or wet land systems.
• -Clearing- the garden site should be cleaned thoroughly by removing grasses, weeds, and other
undesirable plants that may affect the growth of the plants.
• -Plowing- this is the first and most important operation in the preparation of land. The main
purpose of plowing is to cut soil into furrows, pulverize the soil, and aerate the soil, making the soil
more moisture retentive.
• -Harrowing- the purpose of harrowing is to make the plowed soil fine and compact as well as to
destroy weeds, weed seedlings, and grasses.
• - Raise seedbeds- plant beds are raised to provide drainage during the rainy season.
Pollination is the act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a flower to the female
stigma. The goal of every living organism, including plants, is to create offspring for the next
generation. One of the ways that plants can produce offspring is by making seeds.
Types of Pollination
A. Abiotic Pollination
o Refers to situations where pollination is mediated without the involvement of other organisms.
o The most common form of abiotic pollination, anemophily, is pollination by wind. Wind pollination is
very imprecise, with a minute proportion of pollen grains landing by chance on a suitable receptive
stigma, the rest being wasted in the environment. This form of pollination is used by grasses, most
conifers, and many deciduous trees. Hydrophily is pollination by water, and occurs in aquatic plants
which release their pollen directly into the surrounding water.
B. Biotic Pollination
o More commonly, the process of pollination requires pollinators: organisms that carry or move the
pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the receptive part of the carpel or pistil (stigma) of
another.
Methods of Pollination
1. Animal pollinators
As an animal reaches into a flower for its reward, it brushes
against an anther, and some of the pollen sticks to its body.
When the animal visits another flower, some of this pollen
comes off onto the stigma – pollination has occurred. The
pollen of animal-pollinated plants has a rough surface to help it
stick to a pollinator.
2. Attracting insects
- Many flowers use colours to attract insects, sometimes helped by
coloured guiding marks. Some have ultraviolet marks that can be seen by
insects but are invisible to human eyes. Flowers are often shaped to
provide a landing platform for visiting insects or to force them to brush
against anthers and stigmas.
- Some flowers have scent to attract insects. Many of these scents are
pleasing to humans too, but not all – some flowers attract flies with a
smell of rotting meat. Colours can’t be seen in the dark, so scent is
important for flowers that are pollinated by night-flying insects such as
moths.
3. Attracting birds
- Bird-pollinated flowers tend to be large and colourful so birds
can see them easily against a background of leaves.
Most bird-pollinated flowers have lots of nectar, often at the
bottom of a tube of petals. Birds need to brush against anthers
and stigmas when reaching for the sugary reward with their
long beaks.
4. Wind pollination
- Grasses are wind pollinated, as are some of our native trees and
shrubs. The wind may pick up pollen from a grass flower and scatter it all
over the place. Only by chance will a little pollen land on another flower
of the same species. To make up for this waste, wind-pollinated flowers
produce a huge amount of pollen, as hay fever sufferers will know.
- Wind-pollinated flowers tend to have small dull-coloured petals or, in
the case of grasses, no petals at all. They don’t need petals, colour,
nectar or scent to attract animals. The pollen grains are not sticky like
those of animal-pollinated flowers, which reduces the chance of them
sticking to leaves and other obstacles. The stigmas of receiving flowers
are sticky in order to hold on to pollen carried by passing breezes.
b. Asexual Propagation in Plants
 These methods are horticultural done and not by plants
 Examples: Grafting, Tissue Culture, Propagation by vegetative plant
parts like root, stem, leaf etc.
 Plants are derived from single parent thus there is no genetic change
 Plant propagated through asexual propagation has same characters as
the parent
ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1.Asexual reproduction has not been complex. It requires less energy compared to sexual
reproduction.
2.With asexual reproduction, looking for a mate is not difficult at all. This is quite impossible or
difficult with sexual reproduction most especially when colonizing new areas.
3.There is no need for much time or energy to produce offspring. Certain plans and animals can
produce as many offspring as they can without considering the amount of time or energy to
consume.
4.There is no big problem regarding the environment when it comes to asexual reproduction. With
sexual reproduction, organism may not survive when they are dealing with a harsh environment.
The more susceptible or more delicate stages or organs of sexual reproduction will certainly find
it impossible to live.
5.When a particular organism has been established in a very suitable habitat, this reproduces
rapidly for production of more new individuals.
DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
1.The plants gradually lose their vigour as there is no genetic variation. They are
more prone to diseases that are specific to the species. This can result in the
destruction of an entire crop.
2.Since many plants are produced, it results in overcrowding and lack of nutrients.
TYPES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
 NATURAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
- Occurs when an axillary bud grows into a lateral shoot and develops its own roots
(also known as adventitious roots).
Plant structures allowing Natural vegetative propagation include bulbs, rhizomes,
stolons and tubers.
TYPES: by roots, stem and leaves
BY ROOTS
a. SHOOTS – Produced by woody plants
b. ADVENTITIOUS BUDS – Formed on the roots of plants
TUBEROUS ROOTS - The enlarged area of the root-tuber, or storage
root, can be produced at the end or middle of a root or involve the
entire root. It is thus different in origin but similar in function and
appearance to a stem tuber. Examples of plants with notable
tuberous roots include the sweet potato
FASCICULATED - When storage roots occurs in cluster from the base
of the stem. Examples such asparagus, dahlia, and tapioca
NODULOSE ROOTS – When a slender root is swollen abruptly at the
apex it is said to be nodulose. Example is mango ginger (curcuma
amada)
MONILIFORM (BEADED) ROOTS – A moniliform root is alternatively
BY STEM
 Underground Modifications for Perennation, Vegetative
Propagation and Storage:
 There are several very common types of them:
1.Rhizome:
Underground stem serving as an organ of vegetative
reproductions. Example is Ginger.
Rhizomes are underground dorsiventral stems or branches
growing horizontally- under the surface of the soil. These are
brownish in colour so that they are easily mistaken for roots.
But, they are divided into nodes and internodes, there are
brown scale leaves at the nodes and there are axillary as well
as apical buds. Adventitious roots develop on the lower
surfaces of the nodes.
2. Stem-Tuber:
Underground stem is swollen and the nodal regions are called the eyes.
Example is Potato.
Tuber is a general term applied to any fleshy part of the plant which may
store food. These may be stems (underground as in the stem-tubers
under discussion and aerial in some bulbils and pseudobulbs) or roots
(root-tubers).
3. Bulb:
What is commonly known as bulb is actually an underground
modified bud with a very much reduced stem (disc) and fleshy scale
leaves growing from it. The disc has a convex or conical shape with
very much compressed internodes from the nodes of which fleshy
scale leaves arise. At the apex there is a bud which develops into a
flowering scape at the proper season.
Two types of bulbs are distinguished according to the arrangement
of the fleshy scale leaves:
(1)In the tunicated bulb, as in onion (Allium cepa), tulip (Tulipa),
hyacinth (Hyacinthus) and tuberose (Polyanthes), the scale leaves
are arranged in a concentric manner as may be seen in a cross-
section.The whole bulb is covered by some dry membranous scale
leaves which form the tunic.
(2)In scaly or imbricate bulbs, the scale leaves are not concentric but
are arranged loosely like the petals of a flower possibly overlapping
one another only at the margins.
4. Corm:
Bulb-like structure like Gladiolus
The corm, sometimes called a solid bulb, is really a solid very much
condensed vertical rootstock with a large apical bud. There are
some scale leaves on its body and adventitious roots grow either
from its base or all over its body.
 Certain plants, generally of weak herbaceous habit, propagate
quickly by means of special branch stems which give rise to small
daughter plants. Thus, although the individual plants are short-
living, the colony of plants is perennial.
 These modified branches either grow along the surface of the soil
(water in aquatic Plants) or may be partially or wholly underground.
A. Runner
 Prostrate aerial stems. Example is strawberry
 A special type of underground runner or creeping stem is the sobole . It is
sometimes included within rhizomes as it may be considered as one of them, only it is
thin and docs not accumulate any food matter. But, as the term rhizome is usually
applied to fleshy structures storing food, soboles are better considered separately.
These are found in the creeping grasses.
 These grasses grow these underground stems in all directions giving rise to
innumerable offspring's. This is a very effective means of propagation. Even if these
soboles are cut into pieces during cultivation, each node gives rise to a new plant.
B. Stolon:
 A horizontal branch from the base of the plant that produces new plants from buds
at its tips.
 This is a term which has been variously used. It is sometimes taken to be
synonymous with runner. More commonly, it is applied to a special type of runners
which do not grow horizontally from the beginning.
 At first they grow upwards like ordinary branches and then arch down to meet the
soil where daughter plants are formed after striking foot.
C. Sucker:
 Regeneration of a plant by shoots that arise from existing root system.
 Sucker is an underground runner which soon goes up and forms a
daughter plant after striking root. Sucker plants are also formed from
axillary buds at the nodes of this underground runner.
 Plants developed from other underground parts (e.g., roots of some
shrubs and trees) are also called suckers.
D. Offset:
 A short prostrate shoot, which takes root and produces a tuft of
leaves.
 This is found in aquatic plants and is just like the runner, only it is
shorter and thicker. Common instances are the water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes) and pistia (Pistia stratiotes)
E. Slips:
 Shoots just arising below the crown but above the ground.
Example is pineapple
METHODS OF ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
1.CUTTINGS
Many types of plants, both woody and herbaceous, are frequently propagated
by cuttings. A cutting is a vegetative plant part which is severed from the
parent plant in order to regenerate itself, thereby forming a whole new plant.
2. Take cuttings with a sharp blade to reduce injury to the parent plant.
3. Dip the cutting tool in rubbing alcohol or a mixture of one part bleach to nine
parts water to prevent transmitting diseases from infected plant parts to
healthy ones.
4. Remove flowers and flower buds to allow the cutting to use its energy and
stored carbohydrates for root and shoot formation rather than fruit and seed
production.
5. With large-leaved cuttings and limited space in the propagation container,
trimming up to half the leaf length can improve efficiency, as well as light
and air circulation for all the cuttings.
1.To hasten rooting, increase the number of roots, or to obtain uniform rooting
(except on soft, fleshy stems), use a rooting hormone, preferably one containing a
fungicide.
2.Prevent possible contamination of the entire supply of rooting hormone by putting
some hormone in a separate container for dipping cuttings.
3.Discard this hormone after all the cuttings are treated.
4.Place stem and leaf cuttings in bright, indirect light. Root cuttings can be kept in
the dark until new shoots appear.
Stems Cuttings
Leaf Cuttings
Root Cuttings
2. Layering
Stems still attached to their parent plants may form roots where they touch a rooting
medium. Severed from the parent plant, the rooted stem becomes a new plant. This
method of vegetative propagation, called layering, promotes a high success rate
because it prevents the water stress and carbohydrate shortage that plague cuttings.

Some plants layer themselves naturally, but sometimes plant propagators assist the
process. Layering may be enhanced by wounding one side of the stem or by bending it
very sharply. The rooting medium should always provide aeration and a constant
supply of moisture
 Tip layering - Dig a hole 3 to 4 inches deep. Insert the shoot tip
and cover it with soil. The tip grows downward first, then bends
sharply and grows upward. Roots form at the bend, and the
recurved tip becomes a new plant. Remove the tip layer and plant it
in the early spring or late fall. Examples: purple and black
raspberries, trailing blackberries.
 Simple/Ground layering - Bend the stem to the ground. Cover
part of it with soil, leaving the last 6 to 12 inches exposed. Bend the
tip into a vertical position and stake in place. The sharp bend will
often induce rooting, but wounding the lower side of the branch or
loosening the bark by twisting the stem may help.
 Compound layering - This method works for plants with flexible
stems. Bend the stem to the rooting medium as for simple layering,
but alternately cover and expose stem sections. Wound the lower
side of the stem sections to be covered.
 Mound (stool) layering - Cut the plant back to 1 inch
above the ground in the dormant season. Mound soil
over the emerging shoots in the spring to enhance their
rooting. Examples: gooseberries, apple rootstocks.
 Air layering - Air layering is used to propagate some
indoor plants with thick stems, or to rejuvenate them
when they become leggy. Slit the stem just below a
node. Pry the slit open with a toothpick. Surround the
wound with wet unmilled sphagnum moss. Wrap plastic
or foil around the sphagnum moss and tie in place.
When roots pervade the moss, cut the plant off below
the root ball.
3. GRAFTING
Two plant parts ( the scion and the root stock) are joined
together such a manner that they unite and continue their
growth as one.
 APPROACH GRAFTING – the root stock is approached to
the scion, which still attached to the mother plant.
 INARCHING GRAFTING – used as bypass a damaged area
of a tree trunk. The scion can be an existing shoot of
sucker, or can be a new plant planted alongside the
damaged tree.
 BARK GRAFTING – used on flowering and fruit trees.
Applies to rootstock of large diameter.
 SIDE – VENEER GRAFTING – Most popular way to graft
conifers and usually done on potted rootstock.
 SPLICE GRAFTING – applies to herbaceous materials that
callus or knit easily.
 WHIP AND TONGUE GRAFTING – commonly used on nursery
crops or woody ornamentals.
 SADDLE GRAFTING – a deep cleft is made in the end of the
scion by two sloping cuts, and the end of the stock is made
wedge – shaped to fit the cleft in the scion, which is placed
upon it saddle wise.
 BRIDGE GRAFTING – used to “bridge” a diseased or damaged
area of a plant, usually at or near the base of the trunk.
 BUDDING – a graft technique in which a single bud from the
desired scion is used rather than a entire scion containing
many buds. Usually used in citrus plants.
COMMON FARM EQUIPMENTS
Farm Equipment - These are machineries used in crop production. They are used in
land preparation and in transporting farm inputs and products. These equipment need
a highly skilled operator to use.
Farm implements - accessories pulled by animals or mounted to machineries to make
the work easier.
Farm tools - objects that are usually light and are used without the help of animals
and machines.
Preventive maintenance - an activity or operation done to prevent malfunction of
tools and equipment and it is done to prolong the useful life of tools and equipment
Repair - to restore to good condition something broken or damaged
FARM EQUIPMENT SAFETY TIPS
1.Read and comply with the manual. Always thoroughly read the
manual for each piece of equipment. Your new tractor may function
differently than your old one, for example. Then, comply with the
instructions and rules
2.Dress appropriately. An untied shoelace, flowing long hair and stray
threads from an old shirt have, in the past, led to horrendous injuries
when operating farm equipment. Dressing appropriately can mean
reducing risk of such injuries.
3.Ensure you’re well rested. Feeling fatigued when operating machinery
can be dangerous. Make sure you’re taking breaks from work when you
need rest.
4. Avoid alcohol. Even one drink can affect your ability to operate
machinery. Keep alcohol out of the picture until you’re done for the
day.
5. Maintain awareness. Stay focused. Be aware of what you are doing
and where you are going.
6. Adjust equipment accordingly. This means keeping all guards, shields
and access doors in place when operating equipment, and making
necessary alterations to equipment to fit operational conditions.
7. Keep children and animals away from working areas. Farms offer a
world of adventure for curious kids. To avoid any disastrous accidents,
keep your child’s play area separate from your work area.
• Hand tools are usually light and are used without the help of
animals or machines. They are being used in performing farm
activities which involve small areas like school garden and
home garden.

Bolo is used for cutting tall grasses and weeds and chopping
branches of trees.

Crowbar is used for digging big holes and for digging out big
stones and stumps.

Pick-mattock is used for digging canals, breaking hard topsoil

and for digging up stones and tree stumps.
Grab-hoe is used for breaking hard topsoil and pulverizing soil.

Spade is used for removing trash or soil, digging canals or ditches

and mixing soil media.

Shovel is used in removing trash, digging loose soil, moving soil from
one place to another and for mixing soil media.
Rake is used for cleaning the ground and levelling the topsoil.

Spading fork is used for loosening the soil, digging out root crops
and turning over the materials in a compost heap.

Light hoe is used for loosening and levelling soil and digging out
furrows for planting.

Hand trowel is used for loosening the soil around the growing
plants and putting small amount of manure fertilizer in the soil.
Hand cultivator is used for cultivating the garden plot by loosening
the soil and removing weeds around the plant.

Hand fork is used for inter row cultivation.

Pruning shears is for cutting branches of planting materials and

unnecessary branches of plants.
Axe is for cutting bigger size post.

Knife is for cutting planting materials and for performing

other operations in horticulture.

Sprinklers – for watering seedlings and young plants.

Water pails – for hauling water, manure and fertilizers

Sprayers are for spraying insecticides, foliar fertilizers,
fungicides and herbicides

Wheel barrow is used for hauling trash, manures,

fertilizers, planting materials and other equipment.

Sickle is a hand-held agricultural tool with a variously

curved blade typically used for cutting weeds.
FARM TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Farm Implements
Plow
 A farm implement used in horticultural operations either pulled by a
working animal or a tractor.
 The plow is specifically used for tilling large areas, making furrows
and inter – row cultivation.
 Plow pulled by working animals is made of either a combination of
metal or wood or pure metal.
 It is used to till areas with shallower depth than that of the disc
plows which are pulled by tractors
Harrow
 Native wooden harrow is made of wood with a metal teeth and
pulled by a carabao while a disc harrow is made of metal mounted to
a tractor. A harrow is used for tilling and pulverizing the soil.
Rotavator
 An implement attached to a tractor and used for tilling and
pulverizing the soil
 SOIL
Are complex mixtures of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and
countless organisms that are the decaying remains of once-living things.
It forms at the surface of land – it is the “skin of the earth.”
Soil is capable of supporting plant life and is vital to life on earth.
The upper thin layer of the earth’s surface derived from the weathering
of rocks and minerals.
SOIL SCIENCE
Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of
the earth including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical,
chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties
in relation to the use and management of soils for crop production.
In agriculture, a soil test commonly refers to the analysis of a soil sample
to determine nutrient content, composition, and other characteristics
such as the acidity or pH level.
SOIL FERTILITY AND FERTILIZING
Fertilizer - organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin than liming
materials) that is added to soil supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the
growth of plants.
Types of Fertilizer
a)Organic Fertilizer
 Naturally occurring organic materials ( e.g. chicken litter, manure, worm castings,
compost, seaweed, guano, and etc.) or naturally occurring mineral deposits.
 Benefits of Organic Fertilizer
1) Improve biodiversity (soil life) and long term productivity of soil, and may prove a
large depository for excess carbon dioxide.
2) Increase abundance of soil organisms
• Animal manure- this contains high amounts of organic material valuable
to the growth of crops. Manure should be dried or composed before it is
applied to the soil as fertilizer.
• Green Manure- is produced by planting leguminous crops over the areas
for planting. When these plants bear flowers and still green and succulent
they are plowed under and incorporated into the soil until they
decomposed and release nutrients for the crops.
• Compost- it is an organic material consisting mostly of animal manure and
crop residues. Compost contains nearly all the essential elements needed
for plant growth and development
Inorganic Fertilizer
 Fertilizer made from synthetic materials.
• Complete fertilizer- this contains the three major element
needed by plants- Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P), and Potassium
(K).
• -Compound Fertilizer- this contains two of the major elements
• -Straight or single-element fertilizer- this contains only one of
the three major elements.
 2 Types of Nutrients
• Macronutrients
NPK CaMagSu
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, and
Sulfur
• Micronutrients
Iron Man Cop Mochlo B
Iron, Manganese, Copper, Molybdenum, Chlorine and Boron
 The Three Major Elements
• Nitrogen- gives a dark color to plants; promotes their growth; aids in the
utilization of phosphorus, potassium, and other nutrients; and increases
the protein contents of plants. Kit is the most important macro element
needed by plants.
• Phosphorus- stimulates root development, flowering, and seed
formation, promotes the rapid growth of plants, and hastens maturity of
crops.
• Potassium- strengthens the stems of plants and develops their
resistance to plant diseases.
Application Of Fertilizer
• Broadcast Method- this is done by scattering fertilizer uniformly around
each plant.
• Side dressing application- fertilizer are at close to the seeds or around
the established for easy absorption of the elements. Side dressing is the
placement of fertilizer along the row of the side of the plants such as
corn, sugarcane and vegetables.
• Foliar Application- this is done by dissolving fertilizer in water and
spraying it on the leaves or foliar parts of the plant rather on the soil.
This method is used to correct the lack of essential chemical elements in
the soil at the crucial stage of the plant.
Types of Soil Texture
Soil texture is due to the size of the particles that make it
up. There are three main types of soil particle:
• sand, with coarser or larger particles
• silt, with medium sized particles
• clay, with the finest or smallest particles.
Soil type characteristics
Particle size is very important because it affects:
• the proportion of air in a soil
• the amount of water a soil will hold
• the rate at which a soil drains
• how easily a soil can be cultivated.
 Classes of soils
Single grains Loose particles that are not stuck together (sand
is an example).

Crumbs Like biscuit crumbs and usually less than 5 mm in

diameter.

Blocky Irregular blocks that are usually 1.5–5 cm in

diameter.

Clods Hard to see particles that appear in large clods.

Common in clay soils.
Loams
• Loams have a mixture of particles sizes. They are usually the ideal soils
to grow plants in because they have the good qualities of both sand
and clay soils. They are usually a mixture of clay, silt and sand particles
and organic matter.
Loams are classified by which particle type has the highest proportion.
• A sandy loam would have more sand particles than silt or clay particles.
• A silty loam has more silt particles than sand or clay particles.
• A clay loam has more clay particles than sand or silt particles.
Soil texture is one of the most important soil properties to know about
because it indicates:
• how much water and nutrients can be stored in the soil
• how fast the water will move through the soil
• how much air space the soil has
• what kind of organisms live in the soil
• what type of plants will grow.
• Sandy Soil- 85% sand.
• Sandy Loam Soil- 45-85% sand, 0-50% silt, 20% clay.
• Loam Soil- 23-53% sand, 20-50% silt, 5-27% clay.
• Silt Loam Soil- 0-5% sand, 50-88% silt, and 0-27% clay.
• Clay Loam Soil- approximately 20-40% sand, 18-52% silt and
27-40% clay.
IRRIGATION – the artificial application of water to
the land or soil
TYPES OF IRRIGATION
1)Localized – a system where water is distributed
under low pressure through a piped network, in a
pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small
discharge to each plant or adjacent to it.
2)Sub – Irrigation system (Seepage Irrigation) – water
is delivered to the plant root zone from below the
soil and absorbed upwards.
3)Manual – using buckets or hand sprinkler.
4)Surface or Flood Irrigation – is defined as the group
of application techniques where water is applied
and distributed over the soil surface by gravity
5)Sprinkler irrigation is a method of
applying irrigation water which is similar to natural
rainfall.
CONTROL OF PLANT PESTS AND
DISEASE
Insect pests and diseases are destructive to plants. Plant growers should
be aware of different measures on how pests and diseases can be
controlled and treated in order to have good quality and high yield
crops.
• Pest is a collective term that refers to organisms that injure or damage
plants.
• Insect Pests- are insects that cause damage to human and human
concern.
• Parts of an Insect
a. Mouth b. Thorax c. Abdomen
Types of Insect Pest
• Chewing Insects- these insects take their food by biting off and eating
up the leaves and other parts of the plants. Examples: cabbage
worms, cut worms, bean, pod borer, squash bugs and caterpillar.
• Sucking Insects- these insects have tube-like mouth parts, which they
can insert into leaves and stems to suck juice of succulent plants.
Examples are the aphids, leaf hopper, scale insects, and mealy bugs.
• Siphoning Insects- they have coiled tube that dip into liquid food such
as nectar and draw it in.
• Sponging Insects- have two sponge-like structures that collect liquid
food and move it into the food canal.
• Plant Diseases are abnormal conditions in plants that are manifested through sign
and symptoms. They are one of the dangers that may naturally occur in crop
production.
Types of Micro-organisms and Pathogens
• Bacteria- these are microscopic organisms that depend on plants for food. They
enter the host plant either thru wounds or through the cracks of the epidermis. It
may cause rooting of the roots, stems, fruits, leaves, wilting, and death of the
entire plants.
• Viruses- these are infectious or pathogenic organisms that are too small to seen
by naked eye. They are highly infectious and can be easily transmitted to healthy
plants by mere plant movement or through insects with sucking mouth parts.
• Nematodes- these are microscopic eel-like roundworms that feed on the roots and
on the underground parts of many kinds of crops .
 Some Common Insect Pests
APHIDS or BLACK or GREEN FLIES
• When the leaves and stems of your plants begin to look pale and spindly,
aphids are present. Aphids can change color to match plant parts and
metamorphose from nymphs to adult, both with wings and without wings.
When the aphids in one plant become overcrowded, they develop wings and
fly to another plant host of the same plant family. Aphids mature in 12 days.
• Clay can control aphids. Prepare a fine clay solution and spray over aphids to render
their tender bodies lifeless.
•  Atis (Anona Squamosa) seeds are pulverized and mixed with water. Use as spray
against aphids, ants and other insects.
•  Makabuhay (Tinospora Rumphi) – The roots, stems and leaves are pounded to
extract the juice which is then mixed with water for use as a spray against aphids,
flies, moths, worms and other insects.
BORERS
• Borers hatch inside a stem and eat and grow there as caterpillars. The presence of borers is
indicated by the sudden wilting of plant tops. Borers are of many kinds and attack various
plants. Whatever the plant, whatever borer is inflecting it, cut off the injured stems and
burn them to destroy the borers.
CATERPILLARS
• The larval stage of moths and butterflies, caterpillars are of many kinds. Usually developing
from patches of eggs on the underside of leaves, caterpillar feed on foliage and tender
stems.
• Handpicking caterpillars and stepping on them is an effective control measure.
•  Touch the caterpillar with a rag dipped in kerosene to kill it. Use the same rag to touch egg
clusters so they will never hatch.
•  Look for patches of eggs and clusters of young caterpillars on the undersides of leaves and
nip off those leaves and burn them.
CUTWORMS
• Cutworm attack newly transplanted tomato, cabbage and other seedlings. Cutting
them off at the ground level during night time. One kind of cutworm climbs up into
the plant to chew the leaves.
Large irregular areas are chewed out, starting from the edge of a leaf.

• A collar of paper or a tin can with top and bottom cut out and the seedling planted
in the center can prevent the cutworm from reaching the stem.
•  When transplanting, stick a toothpick or a matchstick, or tough twig directly down
the side of the plant stem, touching the stem. The cutworm then can not encircle
and cut the stem.
•  Go out at night with a flashlight. Handpick the cutworms and crush them.
•  When seedlings are nipped off at the ground level, scratch under the soil surface
near the plant to find the cutworm curled in a ring, sleeping.
CUTWORMS
• Cutworm attack newly transplanted tomato, cabbage and other seedlings. Cutting
them off at the ground level during night time. One kind of cutworm climbs up
into the plant to chew the leaves.
Large irregular areas are chewed out, starting from the edge of a leaf.
NEMATODES
• Nematodes are worm parasites that either stick their heads in a plant to suck the
sap or actually spend their lives inside the plant.
• Crop rotation
•  Planting pest-free stock
•  Enriching the soil with humus
•  Planting marigolds as their roots kill nematodes
FRUIT FLIES
• Fruit flies lay eggs which develop into tiny maggots that burrow inside
fruits. Maggots cause slight depressions on the fruit surface and tiny
holes where they emerge. These are hardly noticeable.
• Catch the pest at its fly stage before it could lay eggs. Try this bait: Mix
two teaspoons of household ammonia and 1./4 teaspoon soap powder
in a quart of water. Fill a jar with the mixture and put the jar right next
to the sunny side of the plant. The bait should be changed once a week
or when diluted with rain.
•  Collect dropped fruits and burn or dispose of them properly.
LEAF MINERS
• The leaf miner damage is not serious. Leaf Miners attack
spinach and many other plants. The leaf miner is a grub inside
the leaf. Later, it will develop into a pupa and drop into the
ground.
•  Let birds and chicken feed on the pupae in the ground.
•  Strong smelling herbs could repel the adult fly.
•  Dusting the leaves with ashes controls the leaf miner fly.
MEALY BUGS
• Mealy bugs are scale insects covering the stems of plants and sucking
their juices. They are a serious pest and hard to control.
• Use a cotton swab dipped in denatured alcohol and touch each mealy
bug. The alcohol penetrates the waxy protective covering, killing the
mealy bug.
ROOT MAGGOT FLIES
• The adult fly lays its eggs in the roots of corn, onions, cabbage, etc. The
maggots hatch out and live on the roots, thus weakening the plants.
•  Sprinkle wood ashes liberally around the stems of seedlings. If it rains
and the wood ashes become soaked, replenish with clean, fluffy ashes,
preferably fresh from the fireplace. All root maggots can be controlled by
wood ashes.
SQUASH BUGS
• Squash bugs lay eggs which develop into gray nymphs with fat bodies and black
legs. They suck the juice out of squash plants.
•  Locate the eggs and crush them.
•  Traps may be made by laying thin, flat boards slightly tilted, in the garden rows.
The squash bugs assemble beneath the boards and may then be easily crushed.
•  Sprinkle the squash plant with hydrated lime and wood ashes.
WHITE FLIES
• White flies are very small, aphid-like insects, looking like very tiny moths. The
nymphs are usually difficult to reach by sprays because they are on the underside
of the leaves. Thus, treatments have to be repeated several
•  Use tobacco dust.
•  Spray with nicotine and soap solution.
•  In very bad cases, use kerosene emulsion.
Types of Plant Diseases
Blight- cause plants to quickly turn brown as if
they had been burned.

Canker- causes open wounds on woody

plants.

Damping off- a fungal disease that causes young

plants and seedlings to rot off at the soil level.
Leaf Spots- ring of different shades
of brown, green, or yellow that
make spots on leaves

Mildew- grow on leaf surfaces

(both upper and lower)

Root Rot- causes plants to

decay and die
Mosaic- caused by viruses that make the leaves
have irregular mottled areas with patters ranging
from dark green to light green to yellow to white

Smut- a black powdery disease that causes blister

that burst open releasing black spores.

Wilts- disease that blocks the uptakes of water in

plant stems causing it to wilt
COMPANION CROPS
• Planting two or more crops that have mutual beneficial effect on each
other is called companion planting. Certain plants like each other!
Others dislike each other and aversely affect production.
MATURATION
• Grow short-duration vegetables, like petchay and mustard, between
slow-growing, long duration crops, like tomato, sweet pepper, et. Long
duration vine vegetables, like cucumber, upo, patola, winged bean,
squash, sweet potato and alugbati could be rooted at one side of the
bed and allowed to creep on the ground and/or allowed to trail on a
trellis constructed beside the bed.
 Pest and Diseases Control Methods
Chemical Control- using either insecticides or pesticides
Type of Poison
• Contact Poison- affect the insect’s nervous system and must come into
contact with insect to be effective
• Stomach Poison- are sprayed on plant surfaces or are taken into the
plant through absorption
• Systematic Poison- absorbed by the plant and then ingested by the pest
when it feeds; more effective than stomach poisons for controlling
sucking insects
• Fumigants- poisonous gases released into an enclosed place so that
insects breathe the gases
• Cultural Control- involves sanitation, removing insect breeding and
hiding areas and using insect resistant plant varieties
• Mechanical Control- using physical controls such as traps, screens,
washing plants with soapy water.
• Natural Method- using natural barriers to control insects such as rivers,
woods, mountains and natural predators
• Quarantine- physical isolating insects from healthy plants
• Combined Method- using a combination of control methods is called
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) or Integrated Control
FRUIT AND TREE CROPS
Techniques in Planting Fruit Trees
Square Method- this method is commonly used by most fruit
tree growers. The young plants are arranged in equal distances
from the other with a tree on the corner of the square. Farmers
are able to easily cultivate the soil, apply fertilizer, and remove
alternate trees if the planting distance becomes closer. This is
the simplest and widely used planting technique.
• Quincunx Method- this method is used when fillers are desired.
This is also referred to as diagonal system of planting. The
permanent trees are planted at the corners of the square and the
filler is planted at the center. The quincunx method provides 78%
more trees than the square method. This technique maximizes
land use especially during the early growing and fruiting years.
• Rectangular method- this method is also called alternate system. In this
method, the trees are planted apart in modified row from east to west.
This arrangement enables the trees to have more access to sunlight.
• Hexagonal method- this is also called triangular system of planting. In
this method, one tree stands at the center of hexagon formed by six trees
of equal distances from one another, forming an equilateral triangle. This
system allows 15% more planting areas than the square method.
 Space requirement between Trees
Common Varieties of Fruit Trees Space Requirement (meters)
Avocado 9-12
Atis 4-5
Breadfruit 10-12
Kalamansi 3-4
Orange or Pomelo 6-10
Tsiko 8-10
Duhat 10-12
Guava 4-5
Lanzones 6-8
Jackfruit 4-6
Star apple 10-12
Cashew 8-10
Mango 8-10
Mangosteen 2-3
Rambutan 9-10
Santol 10-14
Tiesa 5-6
Factors should be considered in harvesting fruits:
• -Harvest green fruits when they have reached their maturity
and full size.
• -Harvest fruits in the morning or in the late afternoon.
• -Handle the fruits carefully while harvesting and packaging.
Avoid bruising and damaging the fruits while harvesting so
that they can command good price in the market.
Ways of Marketing Harvested Fruits:
• Retailers- farmers sell their products to fruit vendors, fruit stand owners,
and grocers.
• Brokers- brokers act as middlemen between seller and buyers.
• Selling in bulk- farmers sell their products to wholesalers. In this system,
the fruits are put in big containers and shipped to the market.
• Cooperative Agencies- these are organizations composed mainly farmers
who shallow their services and profit equally. Planters sometimes use
cooperative agencies to sell their produce.
 KINDS OF FOREST TREE
• Philippine dipterocaro or Lauan- this type of forest is found in wet bottoms of valleys and in hilly or
mountainous parts of the country except in areas of high altitudes like the Mountain Province.
Philipine Mahogany
50m tall, trunk branchless.
• Molave or Molavian Type- the molave forest is frequently found in regions of distinct, dry limestone
ridges. The molave forest is considered as the second type of forest timber in the Philippines. Trees in
this forest type include the molave, narra, ipil, tindalo. It grows 15 m tall.
• Pine or Saleng Type- this type of forest is found in the mountainous and high altitude regions of
Northern Luzon in the Cordilleras.
• Mid Mountain and Mossy Type- tis type of forest found in very rough and mountainous regions of the
country. The soil in the region shallow because of direct exposure to sunlight, heavy rains, and strong
winds.
Spice Crops
• Garlic (Allium Sativum)- locally known as bawang, is a member of the onion
group. It is an important condiment used by many households in the country.
Ilocos Region posted highest production of 4.82 thousand metric tons a year.
• Ginger (Zingiber officinale)- locally known as luya, is a popular ingredient for
various food preparations and native drink salabat. It is also used as a
condiment to flavor certain foods and soft drinks.
• Pepper- (Piper nigrum) is also one of the major spices used in cooking. There
are two distinct types of pepper grown in the country. Batangas (14, 007 kg)
and Davao Occidental are the major producers.
COMMON VARIETIES OF COMMERCIAL CROPS
IN THE PHILIPPINES
• BANANA- (Musa spp.) The banana plant is the largest herbaceous
flowering plant. Bananas grow in a wide variety of soils, as long as the
soil is at least 60 cm deep, has good drainage and is not compacted.
The most favorable climate conditions for growing bananas should have
temperatures between 27 and 30 degree Celsius.
• MANGO- One of the four major fruit crops grown in the Philippines is
mango (Mangifera Indica). Mangoes can be successfully grown on soil
of widely diverse types and extreme climatic conditions. The estimated
pH value of soil ranges from 5.5 to 7.5.
 Popular Varieties of Mango in the Philippines
• Carabao- The Carabao mango, also known as the Philippine mango (Mangifera
indica var. carabao) The fruit weights about 240 grams. It is oblong with a blunt
apex and rounded base. The fruit is slightly flattened but with full cheeks.
• Indian or Apple Mango- this variety is also known as the katchamita.
• Pico- this variety bears a medium-sized fruit. The fruit is asymmetrical with a
rounded apex and a more distinctly flattened base as compared with the carabao
variety.
• Pahutan or Supsupin- this variety bears the smallest fruit among the mango
varieties. The fruit is known for its sweetness especially when it is already ripe.
BASIC OIL CROP PRODUCTION
• Soybean-(Glycine max), also called soja bean or soya bean, annual legume
of the pea family (Fabaceae) and its edible seed. The seed contains 17
percent oil and 63 percent meal, 50 percent of which is protein.
Variety
• UPL-Sy2- this variety is relatively resistant to diseases like bacterial
pustule and strain of rust. Members of this variety mature in 86 and 90-
100 days for dry and wet seasons, respectively (PCARRD, 1986). The best
season for planting this variety is from May to June and in October.
• UPL-Sy4- this variety can be updated to upland monoculture and post
paddy. It matures in 95-100 days it can also be planted from May to June
and in October.
• BPI-Sy2- This variety is less sensitive to photoperiodism. It is relatively
resistant to bacterial pustule. It matures in 100-110 days.
• BPI-Sy4- This variety has uniform maturity, is non-lodging, and is
moderately resistant to shattering. It is resistant to bacterial pustule and
strain of rust. It matures in 80-85 days dry season and 90-100 wet
season.
• Peanut- (Arachis hypogaea)can be grown throughout a year. It contains
16-50% oil and 25-30% high quality protein. (PCARRD, 1986). Peanuts are
ready to be harvested when the leaves turn yellow and start to wither.
Peanuts are usually ready to harvest 90-110 days depending on the plant
season.
Varieties
• UPL-Pu2- This is considered as the best variety of peanut. It matures 95-
110 days. This variety is resistant to rust and cercospora. It is also highly
adaptable to Philippine weather conditions.
• BP1-Ph6- this variety matures in 95-100 days. It is one of the best
varieties of peanuts that can be planted in the Philippine because of its
adaptability and early maturity.
• Sesame (Sesame indicum) This oil crop contains 42-62% oil. The
Guatemala White is the only recommended variety for
commercial crop production because it is highly adaptable and
resistant to pests and disease. It matures 90-100 days.
• Sunflower- is the non-volatile oil pressed from the seeds of
sunflower (Helianthus annuus). The oil content of the seed
ranges from 22% to 36% (average, 28%): the kernel contains 45–
55% oil.
BASIC OIL CROP PRODUCTION
• Soybean-(Glycine max) The seed contains 17 percent oil and 63 percent
meal, 50 percent of which is protein.
• Peanut- (Arachis hypogaea) . It contains 16-50% oil and 25-30% high
quality protein.
• Sesame (Sesame indicum) This oil crop contains 42-62% oil.
• Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) The oil content of the seed ranges from
22% to 36% (average, 28%): the kernel contains 45–55% oil.
 Kinds of Oil Crops Distance between Distance between
Rows Hills

Soybean 16-20 10-12

Peanut 8-12 8-10

Sesame 20-29.5 10-12

Sunflower 24-29.5 8-10

The rate of planting oil crops is 2-3 seeds per hill
with a depth of 1 or 2 inches. To avoid
overcrowding remove the weak and thin seedlings
2 weeks after planting.
 BREEDS OF FARM ANIMALS
A.CATTLE RAISING
Some breeds of Cattle Common in the Philippines
1. Meat Production
• a. Ongole/Nellore - Nelore or Nellore cattle
originated from Ongole Cattle originally brought
to Brazil from India. They are named after the
district of Nellore in Andhra Pradesh state in
India.
Bos taurus indicus
Nelores possess natural resistance to various
insects, as their skin is thick and dense, making it
difficult for blood sucking insects to penetrate.
b. Santa Gertrudis - are a tropical beef breed of cattle developed in
southern Texas on the King Ranch.

c. Bali or Banteng - is one of the important beef

cattle breeds contributing to the development of livestock
industries in Indonesia. Beside in Bali Island itself, Bali cattle is the
most predominant breed in most of the eastern islands.

2. Dairy Production
a. Brahman - The Brahman or Brahma is a breed of Zebu cattle that
was first bred in United States from cattle breeds imported from
India.
Male: 800 – 1,100 kg (Adult), Female: 500 – 700 kg (Adult)
b. Holstein Friesian - Holstein Friesians are a breed of dairy cattle
originating from the Dutch provinces of North Holland and Friesland, and
Schleswig-Holstein in Northern Germany and Jutland. They are known as
the world's highest-production dairy animals.
c. Brown Swiss - Brown Swiss is a North American breed of dairy cattle. It
derives from the Alpine Braunvieh. After the Holstein Friesian, it has the
second-highest annual milk yield, over 9,000 kg per annum.
Switzerland, the native home of the Brown Swiss is a very rough and
mountainous country with a total area of about 15,940 square miles.
3. Dual Purpose
a. Sahiwal - Sahiwal is a breed of Zebu cattle which primarily is used in
dairy production. Sahiwal originated from the Sahiwal district of Punjab
province in Pakistan.
b. Tharparkar - Tharparkar is a breed of cattle originating in
Tharparkar District in Sindh province in present day Pakistan.
It is a dual purpose breed known for both its milking and
draught potential
c. Red sindhi - Red Sindhi cattle are the most popular of
all Zebudairy breeds. The breed originated in the Sindh
province of Pakistan, they are widely kept for milk production
across Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and other
countries.
d. Indu – Brazil - Indo-Brazilian cattle are a Zebu beef breed
developed in Brazil
e. Batangas Cattle - The breed is used for draught work
and milk and beef production, although Carabao are often
preferred for draught work. Four breed types have been
recognized, the Ilocos in northwestern Luzon, Batangas in
southwestern Luzon, Iloilo on Panay island, and Batanes
Black on the Batanes Islandsbetween Luzon and Taiwan
B. SWINE RAISING
a. Large white - Large Whites are distinguished by their
picturesque bearing, erect ears, slightly dished faces,
white color, pink skins, and long deep sides.
b. Berkshire - Berkshire Pigs are small pigs with stubby
snouts, short legs and upright ears.
c. Hampshire - The Hampshire pig is a domestic swine
breed characterized by erect ears and a black body with a
whitish band around the middle, covering the front legs
d. Duroc Jersey - Duroc pig is an older breed of domestic
pig. The breed was developed in the United States and
formed the basis for many mixed-breed commercial hogs
e. Pietrain - Piétrain is a breed of domestic pig native to
Wallonia, which takes its name from "Piétrain", a small
village of the Walloon municipality of Jodoigne. This breed
became popular in the 1950s during the difficult period of
the swine market in 1950-51.
C. GOAT RAISING
A. Anglo Nubian - The Anglo-Nubian is a British breed
of domestic goat. It originated in nineteenth century
from cross-breeding between native British goats and a
mixed population of large lop-eared goats imported
from India, the Middle East and North Africa.
b. Saanen - It has white skin and a short white coat;
some small pigmented areas may be tolerated.
c. Alpine - The Alpine is a medium to large sized breed
of domestic goat known for its very good milking ability.
They have no set colours or markings. They have horns,
a straight profile and erect ears. The breed originated in
the French Alps.
d. Native
D. CHICKEN RAISING
a. Egg type
b. Meat type - Broiler chickens, or
broilers, are a gallinaceous
domesticated fowl, bred and raised
specifically for meat production.
c. The Rhode Island Red is an American
breed of domestic chicken. It was
developed in the late nineteenth
century in Massachusetts and Rhode
Island by cross-breeding birds of
Oriental origin such as
the Malay with brown Leghorn birds
from Italy.
Common Diseases (Cattle)
• Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex (BRDC)
Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex (BRDC), or “Shipping Fever”, is a general term for the pneumonia
commonly seen in shipped or stressed calves. Several disease agents or other interacting factors may
cause the syndrome. Stress, such as weaning, dehorning, shipping and weather changes can make the
animal susceptible to disease-causing viruses and bacteria. Although stress cannot be eliminated
entirely, it can be reduced through careful handling and sanitary conditions.
The best way to reduce the risk of BRDC is through routine vaccination. Vaccinating early in life is
important, because calves that survive respiratory disease often don’t grow as fast or as large as
calves, which have never been infected. A vaccine program should include protection against the
following respiratory diseases, all of which contribute to BRDC.
• Clostridial Disease, or "Blackleg"
"Blackleg" is a common name for a class of bacterial infections called clostridial. There
are over 60 different types of clostridial bacteria, but not all of them cause the
disease.
Clostridial usually occurs in calves or young cattle less than 2 years old and is caused
by gangrene that forms in the muscles. Clostridial normally results from young calves
not getting the proper amount of colostrum. Clostridial can appear in older cattle and
is usually the result of vaccine needle contamination.
• BRSV (Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus)
This is a sometimes fatal, stress-related infection that can cause mild to severe
respiratory disease and reduce the animal’s resistance to other diseases. Signs include
coughing, high fever, and runny eyes and nose.
 BVD (Bovine Viral Diarrhea)
This is one of the most costly diseases of cattle. Signs include scours, nasal discharge, coughing, and
fever. Type 2 BVD is a severe form of this virus that can cause hemorrhaging in young calves, as well as
adults.
 Haemophilus Somnus
H. Somnus is a bacterial infection implicated in a variety of respiratory, neurological and reproductive
disorders. H. Somnus can be the primary cause of respiratory disease, or it can be an underlying
infection that is masked by other disease-causing agents. Signs of H. Somnus include fever, coughing,
nasal discharge and labored breathing. Death without symptoms can occur.
 IBR (Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis)
Also known as ‘Red nose,’ this highly contagious virus causes respiratory disease. Signs include inflamed
nasal passages, fever, rapid breathing, deep cough, and loss of appetite.
 PI3 (Parainfluenza Type 3)
This is a common, mild respiratory disease that suppresses the animal’s immune system, allowing other
diseases and infections to develop. The virus is shed in nasal and eye secretions, and infects non-
vaccinated animals through the mouth and nasal passages.
 Pasteurella Haemolytica and Pasteurella Multocida
These highly infectious bacteria are the major cause of pneumonia, and the most
commonly found pathogens in cattle dying of respiratory disease. P. Haemolytica and P.
Multocida multiply quickly in the presence of stress, poor weather, or primary viral
infections. Signs include depression, lethargy, loss of appetite, and high fever. Death can
occur suddenly with few signs of disease, or the animal can survive only to become a
“‘poor doer” due to the lung damage caused by this disease.
 Rabies
Rabies can infect all warm blooded animals, including humans. It attacks the central
nervous system, causing death. Rabies vaccinations are only available from a
veterinarian.
Common Diseases (Swine)
• 1. Swine Dysentery
Swine dysentery also known as vibrionic dysentery, bloody scours, bloody diarrhea or black scours, is
caused by Sepaliva hyodysenteriae. This disease affects the large intestine. It becomes reddish and
swollen. Fluid loss is caused by the malabsorption in the colon where 30-50% of fluids are absorbed.
This is not common in sucking piglets.
• Signs:
Fever (40 °C)
Watery stool with blood/mucus
Loss of appetite
Back is arched due to the pain in the abdomen, the pig may be seen trying to kick it.
In chronic cases there is dehydration, thirst, weakness, incoordination and emaciation (lost of flesh).
Treatment: Treat with antibiotics such as tylosin, lincomycin, and bacitracin.
• Prevention:
Avoid overcrowding in pig houses.
Lessen stress through good housing and management, maintenance of good hygiene and cleanliness
• 2. Salmonellosis
Various strains of Salmonella bacteria cause diarrhea. Salmonellosis is a type of diarrhea observed in
weaned piglets up to six months. Morbidity can be as high as 70 percent and 50 percent mortality.
• Signs:
Heavy bacteremia (presence of bacteria in the blood)
High fever (41 °C)
Cyanosis of the skin (bluish skin) particularly in the belly and eartips
Skin hemorrhages
Little or no diarrhea before death
Watery feces with occasional blood and shreds of grey tissue
In chronic cases, a grayish diarrhea is noted coupled with dehydration and roughness of the haircoat,
which can cause death.
Mode of Transmission: Oral
• 2. Salmonellosis
• Treatment:
Isolate the infected pig to prevent the spread of the disease.
Remove the feed and provide clean drinking water with electrolytes.
Give the pig antibiotics (Ampicillin or Chloramphenicol are recommended).
• Prevention:
Practice the all-in-all-out system in fattening pigs.
Always maintain good hygiene.
Common Diseases (fowls)
• Diarrhoea (also known as scours or dirty vent). The stool or droppings of the chickens are not firm but
very loose, watery, not of the normal colour and may contain blood.
This may cause the feathers of the vent to be soiled and caked together
Depression
Reluctance to eat, drink and move about
Poor growth
Death
• Causes
There are many different types of organisms that can cause diarrhoea, which include:
Bacteria (Salmonella, E. coli, Pasteurella)
Viruses (Newcastle disease, gumboro disease)
Parasites (coccidiosis, worms)
Fungi (Candida, Aspergillus)
• Treatment
Use an antibiotic or coccidiostatic drug in the water that was recommended by the animal health
technician or veterinarian in the water for 3 to 5 days.
Stress preparations that contain electrolytes, vitamins and minerals can be added to the water.
• UPPER RESPIRATORY DISEASES
The sinuses of the chicken (the area between the eye and the beak) are swollen. These may be swollen in such a way that
the eyes are closed.
Tears and wetness often occur around the eyes and nostrils. The discharge from the nostrils may look like clear water in the
early stages but can become cloudy and yellow when secondary bacterial infections cause complications.
Sneezing
Coughing
Difficulty in breathing. They breathe with an open beak and you can hear a snoring or clicking sound
Loss of appetite
Weakness
Weight loss
• Causes
There are many different types of organisms that can cause disease in the upper respiratory tract. These include:
Mycoplasma
Bacteria (E. coli, Pasteurella, Haemophilus)
Viruses (Newcastle disease, influenza, infectious bronchitis, infectious laryngotracheitis)
Parasites (mites and worms)
Fungi (Aspergillus)
• Treatment
Use an antibiotic drug that was recommended by your animal health technician or veterinarian in the water for 3 to 5 days
Stress preparations that contain electrolytes, vitamins and minerals can be added to the water
FISHERY
ARTS
Fisheries
Fisheries refers to all activities relating to the act or business of
fishing culturing, preserving, processing, marketing, developing,
conserving and managing aquatic resources and the fishery areas,
including the privilege to fish or take aquatic resource.
Fish culture, as an aspect of aquaculture, is one of the answers to the
pressing needs of increasing food production. As a subsidiary of
aquaculture it deals with the cultivation of fishes in ponds and in other
aquaculture facilities, such as cages, fish pens, tanks, raceways and rice
paddies. Since many freshwater and brackish water species are cultured
in ponds, it is the concern of this lesson to study fish and its parts with
corresponding functions.
Fish is a cold-blooded vertebrate living in water, breathing by means of gills; whose
body may or may not be covered with scales. In general, it includes all the fin fishes
and other aquatic animals such as crustaceans,( crabs, prawns, shrimps, lobsters)
and mollusk ( clams, mussels, oysters, snails and shellfishes ).

Fish is a business for it is a source of income, food and livelihood if it can be cultured
for commercial purposes and marketed properly.

Fishery is the business of catching, handling, taking, marketing and preserving of

fish and other fishery products
External Parts of the Fish and Their Functions
1. Operculum/gill cover - part of the fish that covers the gills
2. Scales - part of the fish that cover the body
3. Lateral lines - lines along the body of the fish used to help the fish adapt itself to its new
environment
4. Fins - part of the fish that used for swimming, balancing and propelling in water
5. Eyes - part of the fish that used for seeing
6. Mouth - part of the fish that used for swallowing objects, particularly food
7. Anus - part of the fish that serves as an excretory organ of the fish where the waste matter coming
from the body of fish passes out.
8. Caudal Peduncle - part of the fish that connect the body and the tail
9. Nostril - part of the fish that used for smelling
Internal Parts of Fish and their Functions
1.Spine – the primary structural framework upon which the fish’ s body is built. It
connects to the skull at the front of the fish and the tail at the rear. The spine is
made up of numerous vertebrae, which are hollow and which protect the delicate
spinal cord.
2.Spinal cord – the part that connects the brain to the rest of the body and relays
sensory information from the body to the brain, as well as instruction from the brain
to the rest of the body .
3.Brain – the control center of the fish where both automatic functions and higher
behaviours occur. All sensory information is processed here.
4.Lateral line – one of the fish’s primary sense organs. It detects underwater vibration
and is capable of determining the direction of their source.
5.Swim or air bladder – a hollow, gas-filled balance organ that allows a fish to conserve
energy by maintaining neutral bouyancy in water.
1.Kidney – filters liquid waste materials from the blood. These waste are then passed
out the body
2.Stomach and intestines – break down food and absorb nutrients.
3.Pyloric caeca – finger like projection located near the functions of the stomach and
the Intestine. It known to secrete enzymes that aid digestion. It may also function
to absorb digested food or do both.
4.Liver – it assists digestion by secreting enzymes that break down fats, and also
serves as storage area for fats and carbohydrates.
5.Heart – circulates blood throughout the body.
6.Muscle – provide movement and locomotion . These are parts of the fish that are
usually eaten. They compose the fillet of the fish.
7.Gonad - hormone-secreting sexual gland of a fish.
 Fish Scales
Fish Scales Tell the Age of a Fish Look at the image of the fish scale.
Like a tree, scales show rings that indicate periods of growth. Rings that
are farther apart occur when the fish grows well and there is a lot of food
in the summer season. Rings that are close together occur when the fish
does not get much food and grows slowly. On the scale you can identify
the summer growth and the winter growth.
(There will be several rings in each). The core represents the fish when it
was first born, as a fry. The rings near the edge are the most recent
periods of growth.
 Types of Fish Scales
1.Placoid - it resembles a miniature tooth called denticles Ex.
shark scales

2. Cycloid - it is oval or circular in outline and have a smooth and

exposed rear edge

3. Ctenoid - scales that have a rear edges made of small brush-

like spines or comb liked teeth. Ex. Scales of perch, pongies and
bass
Parts of Gills

1.Gill filament - used for exchange of gases such as

oxygen and carbon dioxide.
2.Gill arch - used for support and for passing blood to
and the gill filaments.
3.Gill rakers - used for straining food from the water
Phases or Aspects of Fish Culture:
1.Fish Cultivation - the rearing of fish under controlled or semi-
controlled condition
2.Fish Propagation - the process of increasing fish life either by natural
or artificial means of reproduction.
3.Fish Conservation - the scientific means of utilizing fish and other
fishery aquatic products/resources.
 Branches of Fishery
1.Fish Culture - the human effort of raising the maximum productivity of
fish and other fishery aquatic products and maintaining the supply of
these products to satisfy human needs.
2.Fish Capture - branch of fishery science that deals with the scientific
method of catching fish as well and the type of fishing gear used.
3.Fish Preservation - branch of fishery science that deals with the
scientific method of preserving fish and other fishery aquatic products
to prevent spoilage.
Ichthyology - the science that deals with the study of fishes
Ichthyologists - scientists or persons who study fishes
 Classification of Fish Culture
1. According to extent of financial investment
a. Intensive - utilizes limited area with very high investment
b. Extensive - utilizes wide area with minimal capital and very low production
c. Semi-intensive - employ some or the majority of the modern techniques of
production
2. According to purpose
a. for commerce or for business
b. for recreation or for enjoyment
c. for educational and cultural or scientific pursuit
d. for food production
3. According to design
a. natural pond
b. artificial pond
4. According to state of water
a. still water
b. running water
5. According to salinity
a. freshwater
b. brackish-water
c. marine or saltwater
6. According to temperature
a. Warm water or hot water
b. Cold water
7. According to species raised
a. Freshwater species
b. Brackish-water species
c. Marine or saltwater species
Terminologies used in the study of Fish Culture
1.Endemic or indigenous - native to the locality
2.Exotic or digenous - introduced by other countries
3.Habitat - the place where plants and animals grow and naturally live
4.Herbivorous - species of fish that feed on plants and vegetables only
5.Carnivorous - species of fish that feed on other animals
6.Omnivorous - species of fish that feed on both plants and animals
7.Tide - the periodic rise and fall of seawater
8.Milt - the male reproductive gland of fishes
9.pH - the hydrogen ion-concentration of water
10.photosynthesis - the process by which plants manufacture their food with the aid of
sunlight
11. predators - species of fish feeding on other fishes specially the cultivable
ones
12. prolific - the process of producing young in great numbers
13. Sabalo - the bangus breeder or spawner
14. Salinity - the degree of freshness and saltiness of water
15. Temperature - the degree of coldness and hotness of water
16. Competition - the rivalry for food, space and oxygen inside the fishpond
17. Cannibalistic - species of fish that feed on their own kind
18. Plankton - the biological association of minute plants and animals which are
found growing on the surface of the water.
19. Spat - the larvae of oyster and mussel which are free swimming in water.
20. Catadromous - species of fish that go down from freshwater to saltwater to
spawn ex: eels
21. Anadromous - species of fish that go upstream from salt water to freshwater to spawn ex:
bangus
22. Oviparous - species of fish whose eggs are fertilized and developed outside the body ex:
tilapia
23. Viviparous - species of fish that bring forth living young which during their early development
receive nourishment from their mother fish
24. Ovoviviparous - species of fish whose eggs are fertilized and developed within the body but
the young when born alive do not receive nourishment from the mother fish ex: Rays and
Sharks
25. Food chain - the linear relationship of undergoing the process of eating and being eaten.
26. Scavenger - species of fish that feed on decaying organic matter
27. Lab-lab - the vernacular term for all the greenish, brownish or yellowish crust of micro
benthic fauna and flora, which are found growing in matrix or mat at the pond floor.
28. Fecundity - the number of eggs laid by a female fish in one spawning.
29. Standing crop - the total number of fish stocked at a given area at a given time.
30. Biomass - the total weight of the animal in the given environment.
• Closed season- the period during which the taking of specified
fishery species by a specified fishing gear is prohibited in a
specified area or areas in Philippine waters.
• Commercial fishing- the taking of fishery species by passive or
active gear for trade, business and profit beyond subsistence
or sports fishing.
• Coral- the hard calcareous substance made up of the skeleton
of marine coelenterate animals living in colonies where their
skeletons form a stony mass.
• Coral reef- a natural aggregation of coral skeleton, with or
without living coral polyps, occurring in intertidal or sub-tidal
marine waters.
• Detritus- the particulate remains of plants and animals.
• Endangered, rare and/or threatened species- aquatic plants,
animals, including some varieties of corals and sea shells in
danger of extinction.
• Fecundity- determined by the number of eggs a fish will lay.
• Fish propagation- the natural or artificial systems of enhancing
reproduction and survival of fish and other fishery product.
• Fish fry- a stage at which a fish has just been hatched usually with sizes
from 1-2.5 cm.
• Fine Mesh Net- net with mesh size of less than three centimeters;
measured between two opposite knots of a full mesh when stretched or
as otherwise determined by the appropriate government agency.
• Fish and Fishery/Aquatic Products- include not only finfish but also
mollusks, crusteans, echinoderms, marine mammals, and all other
species of aquatic flora and fauna and all other products of aquatic living
resources in any form.
• Fish cage- refers to an enclosure which is either stationary or
floating made up of nets or screens sewn or fastened together
and installed in the water with opening at the surface or
covered and held in a place by wooden/bamboo posts or
various types of anchors and floats.
• Fisheries- refers to all activities relating to the act or business of
fishing, culturing, preserving, processing, marketing,
developing, conserving and managing aquatic resources and the
fishery areas, including the privilege to fish or take aquatic
resource thereof.
• Fish fingerlings- a stage in the life cycle of fish measuring to
about 6-13 cm. depending on the species.
• Fishing- the taking of fishery species from their wild state of
habitat, with or without the use of fishing vessel.
• Fish pen- an artificial enclosure constructed within a body of
water for culturing fish and fishery/aquatic resources made up
of poles closely arranged in an enclosure with wooden
materials, screen or nylon netting to prevent the escape of fish.
• Fishpond- a land-based facility enclosed with earthen or stone
material to impound water for growing fish.
• Habitat- is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited
by a particular species of animal, plant or other type of
organism.
• Hatchery- a system and/or building where fish and other
aquatic products are reared through their larval stages.
• Lablab- is an aggregate of minute plants and animals but
growing in matrix or at the pond bottom.
• Lumut- is filamentous algae usually anchored at the pond floor
• Mangroves- a community of intertidal plants including all species of trees,
shrubs, vines and herbs found on coasts, swamps, or borders of swamps.
• Municipal finishing- refers to fishing within municipal waters using fishing
vessels of three gross tons or less, or fishing not requiring the use of
fishing vessel.
• Plankton- is a combination of microscopic plants and animals growing in
the column of water.
• Propagule- the shoot, seed, fruit of mangrove used to spread or
propagate.
• Financial plan and projections- last section of a business plan which
should be developed with a professional accountant after one has
completed a market analysis and set goals for his/her company.
Native or Indigenous Fish
Dalag - Mudfish or murrel Snakehead fish
Ophicephalus striatus

Hito – Freshwater catfish

Clarias microcephalus (native)
Clarias batrachus (African)
Biya – Goby
Glossogobius guirrus
Ayungin - Therapon
Therapon plumbeus
Bangus - Milk fish
Chanos chanos
Introduced or Exotic Fishes
Karpa - Common carp Cyprinus carpio
Tilapia - Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus
Zill’s tilapia Tilapia zilli
Java tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus
Gorami - Giant gourami Osphronemous gourami
Crustaceans
Alimango Sugpo
Mud Crab Prawn or Tiger Prawn
Scylla serrata Penaeus Monodon
Alimasag
Blue Crab
Neptunus Pelagicus
 Common Enemies of Fish
1. Predators - fish and other animals that prey on the cultured species of
fish
2. Competitors - fish and other animals that compete with the cultured
species in terms of food, space and oxygen
3. Nuisances - crustaceans and other animals that do a lot of damage
to the food and in the habitat of fish.
 Natural Food of Fish in the Pond
1.Plankton- small plants floating in water
2.Lab-lab
3.Algae – are a very large and diverse group of simple,
typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to
multicellular form s, such as the giant kelps that grow to 65
meters in length.
 Characteristics of Fish that are Suitable for
Pond Culture
1.Fish should be palatable and good tasting – the fish must have
a delicate flavour.
2.Fish must be a fast grower – the fish must be able to grow
rapidly or can give a possibility of four or more harvests a year .
3.Fish should be resistant to pests, diseases and parasites – the
fish should not succumb to abrupt changes in temperature or
salinity and can tolerate such conditions in all its existence.
1.Fish should be a universal feeder – the culture fish require food which
can be grown easily and abundantly under favourable conditions.
2.Fish should have high market demand – the fish must command a high
price to recover the expenses incurred.
3.Fish should not be destructive in confinement, either to its kind or to
other species or to its environment – the fish should be prolific which
means that reproduce very often to have a continuous supply of fry or
stocks
Compartments of a Fishpond and Functions
1. Nursery pond - the smallest and the cleanest compartment where fish are reared from fry up to
pre- fingerling size
2. Transition pond - a compartment where fish are reared from pre- fingerling size to post fingerling
size before stocking them in to other larger compartments, it is also known as stunting pond.
3. Rearing pond - the largest compartment of a fishpond where fishes are reared from post
fingerlings up to marketable size
4. Breeding pond - a compartment where spawners are confined and are used purposely for the
production of fry
5. Catching pond - an area that serves as catchment basin for fish harvest
6. Head pond - an area that serves as water reservoir where water is stored before going to other
pond compartments
7. Water supply canal - canal used to supply water throughout the whole fish pond system
 Types of Dikes
a. Primary, main or perimeter dike - it is the dike that encloses and
protects the entire pond system.
• - it is the tallest and widest among the types of dikes with the most
gradual slope.
• - it is the dike that should be provided with a freeboard of 0.3 – 1
meter after shrinkage and settlement.
• - the dike that is usually provided puddle trench measuring 30cm in
width and 50cm in height dug up along the central path of such a dike.
• Freeboard – is the additional height of a structure, e.g. main dike,
above high water level to prevent overflow.
b. Partition dike Two classification of partition dike
• b.1. Secondary dike – which are smaller than the main dike with gradual
slope and which enclose NPs, TPs, and RPs.
• b.2. Tertiary dike – the smallest and lowest in height dikes which
enclose the catching ponds and fry acclimation pond.
Types of Gates
a. Primary or main gate/s
• - is/are the pond gate/s constructed on the perimeter dike/s.
• - is/are the largest and tallest gate/s as waterway depending the
size of the entire pond system.
• - it links the pond system to the source of water.
• - it regulates the exchange of water between the pond system
and the tidal stream.
• - it is usually situated at the central side of a main dike facing the
source of water.
Requirements in the design of main gate:
• 1. It should be as high as the main dike.
• 2. Its floor elevation should be lower than the lowest pond bottom elevation and as
low as or slightly lower than extreme low tide.
• 3. It may have 1-4 openings as waterway depending upon the size of the entire pond
system to be flooded. a. A single opening with 1 meter wide is enough to flood a 10-15
hectare bangus pond system with 50-75 cm water depth in 2-3 successive high tides. A
2-3 openings with 1-1.2 m each opening is needed for the same hectarage for shrimp
farming requiring > 1m water depth, and 3-4 openings with 1-1.2 m each opening for
>15 ha of pond.
• 4. Each opening must have 4 pairs of grooves: 2 pairs for slabs or flashboards to fit at
the central gate portion and 2 pairs for screens – one at each end of the gate.
• 5. Its 4 wings should be constructed 45o outward.
• 6. The gate foundation must be rigid and stable. Its floor and apron
should rest or sit on a combination of wooden piles (tulus) and layers of
boulders and gravel or just wooden piles alone.
• 7. It must be provided with cut-off walls.
• 8. It must be provided with adequate reinforcement steel bars which are
spaced < 40 cm center to center. Vertical bars of 12-13 mm in ø and
horizontal bars of 10mm in ø should be used.
b. Secondary Gates
• - are those gates situated on the partition dikes.
• - regulates water level in the NP, TP and RP units.
• - are smaller than main gate with 1-2 openings per gate with a width of
0.8 – 1 meter per opening.
• - are made of either concrete hollow blocks, reinforced concrete mix, or
wood.

c. Tertiary Gates
• - are those gates installed in the catching ponds.
• - are the smallest gates with opening width of 0.5 – 0.8m
 Classification of Gates:
• 1. Sluice gates – are those pond gates constructed open on top (not
concealed) across the dikes with 2 pairs of grooves provided at the
central portion of the sidewalls for fitting the slabs and another 2 pairs
for each of the gate ends for the screens.
- are easy to mention and allow rapid water discharge rates.
- may not render passage of vehicular transport across them.
• 2. Monk gates- are those gates whose central bodies are concealed in
the dikes, i.e. the top of the main body parts of the gate is covered
with soils which allows motor vehicles to pass over.
 Other pond support structures:
• a. Water supply canals (WSC) – these canals serve the purpose of supplying and
draining water to and from the pond. The main water supply canal starts from the
main gate and usually transverse the central portion of the fish farms. The floor of
this is sloping towards the gate floor. A 10-15 ha pond is provided with WSC having
a width of at least 3 meters.
• b. Drainage canals (DC) – these are support structures usually constructed in the
outer ides of the pond parallel or perpendicular to the WSC. These are
recommended in intensive culture, especially of shrimps, to effect flow-through
system and better water management.
• c. Flumes – are open channels or elevated canals constructed on top of the dike for
purpose of supplying well-oxygenated water into various pond compartments.
These can be made of concrete hollow blocks, prefabricated concrete slabs, or
marine plywood. These are recommended in semi-intensive and intensive prawn
farming.
• d. Pumps – are machines used in pumping water into and out
of the ponds. These are very necessary during the dry season
when water level is low and the salinity of brackish water
ponds becomes too high (above the optimum).
• e. Aerators – these are devices used to supply oxygen or
agitate or break up the water surface to effect the fast transfer
of oxygen from air to water during which time the oxygen in
the pond is at critical level, e.g. <3-4 mg/l (ppm), and to
remove the excess oxygen in the pond as well as the toxic
gases such as the ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2), and
hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
Other Fish Culture Facilities
Hapa - it is an unframed net tied to posts and principally used for nursing
fry and holding of breeder. It looks like an inverted mosquito net.
Fish cage - it is a framed net that is either fixed or mobile. Set in water
and surrounded with a bamboo raft and provided with an anchor at the
bottom. It is used for the culture of fish from fry to marketable size.
Fish pen - it is an enclosure of net or bamboo slats with sturdy posts
staked at the bottom of water and used for the culture of fish from fry to
marketable size
Tank - it is a structure made of brick tile or concrete used for the purpose
of culturing fish from fry, to marketable size. It can also be used as a
breeding tank, or as conditioning tank for breeders.
Raceway – an enclosure of concrete soil or added materials generally in the
shape of the canal through which constant water flows. Fish are raised in
the raceway at high density and their waste products are carried out by the
water passing through the areas
 In cultivating fish, diseases may hamper the enterprise. The three
major groups of living organisms that maybe responsible for diseases are
viruses, bacteria and parasites.
The symptoms that fish has a disease include death, unusual behavior,
and presence of some physical signs.
Fish diseases effect fish farms severely through;
a) reduced fish growth and production;
b) increased feeding cost;
c) increased vulnerability to predation;
d) increased low water quality; and
e) death of fish.
 Phatogen Symptom Prevention
Fungus *Cottony grey-white or brown patches *Proper fish handling
on the skin *Avoid handling fish in cold water
*Low organic matter in water

Trematodes *Black spots *Control snails and control predators

*Yellowish cysts on gills like birds
*Remove infected fish

Bacteria *Loss of appetite *Improve water quality

*Fin and tail rot
*Pale gills
*Fluid in abdomen
Nematode *Round worm in spiral shape near gills *Not really a problem for fish health
(Contracaecum) but leads to consumer dissatisfaction

Parasitic protozoan *Fish try to scrap their bodies on hard *Salt, potassium permanganate or
surfaces (flashing) formalin bath
*Keep water temperature near
optimum range for that species of fish
 NUTRITIONAL DISEASES

Cause Symptom Prevention

1. Lack of protein -Poor growth -Feed protein rich food e.g soya
-Caudal fin erosion beans, slaughterhouse by-products,
-Loss of appetite fish meal

1. Lack of lipids -Poor growth -Feed with energy-rich foods

The following should be followed in treatment of an infected
ponds.
• Ponds with infections should be drained and badly infected
fish culled.
• Dry the pond under the sun for about seven days.
• Dampen the pond bottom.
• Spread lime (Calcium carbonated) evenly over entire surface
of pond bottom at the rate of 1500 kg/ha.
• Wait for 15 days then restock the pond with healthy stocks.
• Other phenomena that affect the marine resources are red
tide and coral bleaching.
Fish Preservation
Fish Preservation - is any operation that can prevent or inhibit
the natural process of breakdown or decomposition taking
place in the fish. It is known as fish processing.
1. Autolysis - softening of tissue due to digestive action of
enzyme
2. Canning - method of preparing food in a hermetically
sealed container by the application of heat
3. Drying - method of preservation by lowering the moisture
content through the application of natural or artificial heat
4. Dehydration - removal of moisture under controlled
conditions
5. Eviscerate - removal of internal organs of fish
6. Gibbing - process of removing internal organs by cutting a
triangular cut at the throat of the fish
7. Icing - the application of ice to lower the temperature of
the fish
8. Pickling - the process of curing of fish in vinegar and spices
9. Pressure cooker - a closed metal fitted by a pressure gauge,
control Valve and pet cock
10.Pressure gauge - a device used to measure and maintain
pressure during processing
11. Can sealer - a machine used to close the open end of tin
can
12. Exhausting - elimination of air inside the can
13. Vacuum - empty space without air
14. Refrigeration - method of preservation by lowering the
temperature to point wherein bacterial growth is inhibited
15. Salting - method of preserving fish with salt as its main
preservative
16. Smoking - process of preserving fish with the application of
smoke and other interrelated processes such as salting, drying,
and heating treatments
17. Viscera - internal organs, entrails of fish
18. Rigor mortis - stiffening of the muscles or tissues of the fish
several hours after death
19. Brine - mixture of salt and water
20. pH - refers to hydrogen-ion concentration
Principles of Fish Preservation
1. Prevent or delay microbial decomposition of fish
2. Prevent or delay self-decomposition of fish
3. Prevent other causes of spoilage of fish like physical
damages
 AGENTS OF SPOILAGE
1. Microorganisms
Three Main Groups of Microorganism
a.Bacteria - responsible in the breakdown of plant and animal material and the
possible the return of simple inorganic compounds to the soil. The result of this
breakdown is spoilage, fermentation and decay. Since fish is an organic matter, it
spoils easily. As soon as it dies, bacteria act on it.
b.Molds - fuzzy or cottony organisms that grow on the surface of the food. They are
responsible for the white, orange, black, green or blue green colonies on the surface
of the food.
c.Yeasts - whitish to yellowish colonies on the surface of the food. They appear as a
film on the surface of the liquid or as sediments at the bottom.
2. Enzymes - proteins that act as biochemical catalysts in living organisms. They are
normally present along the digestive tract and help in the breakdown of food into
assimilable forms.
Changes in Fish After Death
1. Changes in Appearance - the color starts to fade until it
becomes dull as spoilage progresses
2. Rigor mortis - characterized by the stiffening of the muscle
tissue.
3. Autolysis - the breakdown of tissues caused by enzymes.
4. Putrefaction – the state when the components of the flesh are
assimilable forms. The fish at this stage is spoiled and
undesirable.
Characteristics of Fresh and Stale
Fish
Classification of Bacteria According to Shape
1.Coccus - round
2.Bacillus - rod-shaped
3.Spirillus - spiral
4.Staphylococcus - grapelike
5.Streptococcus - chainlike
Classification of Bacteria According to Their
Temperature Requirement
1.Thermophilic - thrive at high temperature (heat
loving)
2.Psychrophilic - thrive best at low temperature (cold-
loving organisms)
3.Mesophilic - those that thrive between low and high
temperatures
Classification of Bacteria According to Their Oxygen
Requirement

1.Aerobic - requires free oxygen in order to live

2.Anaerobic - lives in the absence of free oxygen
3.Facultative - grows with or without free oxygen
Types of Enzymes

1.Lipolytic - enzyme that acts on fats

2.Proteolytic - enzyme that acts on proteins
3.Amylolitic - enzyme that acts on carbohydrates
Methods of Fish Preservation
1. Fish Curing - includes all the methods of fish
preservation except refrigeration and canning. It is
the process of preservation by the use of
preservatives and other chemicals for the purpose of
keeping fish and other fishery products fresh for
future use.
Types of Fish Curing
a.Salting - application of salt to the fish
b.Drying - lowering of water content of the product to a degree where
bacteria cannot grow and reproduce
c.Smoking - application of smoke to the product
d.Pickling and spicing - preservation of food by the use of vinegar and
other spices
e.Salting - considered the basis of all methods of fish preservation
Salt - colorless or white crystalline compound known chemically as
sodium chloride (NaCl) occurring abundantly in nature, both in solid
form and in solution
Factors Affecting Salting
1. Composition of salt
a.Pure salt - fish salted with pure salt is of better
quality. It is soft and flabby and has yellowish white
color
b.Impure salt - fish salted with impure salt is firm and
rusty in color
2. Temperature - high temperature makes salt dissolve
faster, permitting a rapid penetration of the product
with salt.
3. Methods of Salting
a.Kench Salting or Dry salting
b.Dry Salting to Make Brine
c.Brine Salting
d.Fermenting
4. Methods of Cleaning
e.whole fish
f. splitted fish
g.gutted fish
5. Size of the Fish - small sized of fish is salted faster than larger size of
fish 6. Storage of Fish
Factors Influence Salt Penetration
Fat Content of Fish
• If fish is fatty, for instance, milkfish, herring, mullet, sardine, short-
bodied mackerel and many others, fat content of fish is barrier in salt
penetration because this blocks the process of osmosis.
Thickness of the flesh
• If fish is big, the flesh is thick, hence, salt penetration is slow. For
example, salt penetration of single fillets of hornish tapa making is
slower than goatfish tapa single fillets because the flesh of the former
is thicker than the latter.
Temperature during salting
• If salting of fish is done during dry season, salt penetration is fast than salting of
fish is done during rainy season. And Bacterial spoilage is also fast during dry
season than rainy season.
Freshness of fish
• If fish is salted fresh, salt penetration is slower but greater weight gain. But if fish
is salted in stale condition, fast salt penetration occurs and greater weight loss.
Purity of salt
• If pure is used in salting fish, fast salt penetration occurs than with the presence
of impurities like magnesium and calcium salts. There is good appearance of the
color of salted fish with pure salt used and flavor is also good while impure salt
used salted fish has biting taste.
 Defects in Salted Fish products
1. Reddening
• This is the most common defect of salted and dried fishery products which is believed to
be due to red microorganisms that can live and gradually multiply in a strong salt
concentration. The growth of these microorganisms is enhanced by the use of impure
salt and due to unsanitary practices during the processing.
2. Dun Fish
• This is another defect of salted and dried fish products. The presence of microorganisms
produces chocolate brown spots on the surface of the product. The growth of these
microorganisms is enhanced by the use of impure salt and due to unsanitary practices
during the preparation.
3. Souring
• This is due to improper salting thus resulting into uneven distribution of
salt throughout the fish muscles.
4. Salt-Burn
• This is caused by the use of excessive amounts of fine salt which draws out
the surface moisture so rapidly that proteins coagulate to the extent that
dehydration of the salted product is difficult to attain.
5. Slimming or Slimy brine
• Usually fish packed in brine becomes slimy and the quality is lowered. The
main reason for this type of spoilage are inadequate salting or extended
periods of water horsing, lack of freshness of the fish and unsuitable
atmospheric conditions, high temperature and relative humidity.
B. Drying and Dehydration
lowering the water content of the fish with the aid of heat
• Drying and dehydration preserve fish and other fishery products by removing
moisture through osmosis. The safe moisture content for dried fish is 20%.
However, 15% moisture prevents growth of spoilage microorganisms, especially,
if dried products are treated with chemicals prior to drying.
• Sun-drying is a conventional method of preserving fish but dipping the
fish in one percent (1%) sorbistat, brand name of sorbic acid, for 10 minutes can
prevent mold growth and extend shelf-life for five months.
Phases of Drying and Dehydration
1. Constant Rate Period
• During this phase evaporation of the so called free moisture occurs
from the fish surface. The drying is constant because material
behaves as a saturated solution. Diffusion processes can supply
moisture to the surface as fast as moisture is removed.
Factors affecting constant Rate Period
* Surface of the fish.
• The larger the surface area of fish is exposed during drying, the
faster is the drying rate.
 * Air Velocity
• The increase in air velocity will increase the rate of drying during the
constant rat period but not quite in proportion, if the air velocity is
doubled the rate of drying is only increased by about three quarters.
* Wet-bulb depression
• The drying rate is directly proportional to the wet-bulb depression of
the air. This means that during constant rate drying, the wet-bulb
depression is doubled the rate of drying will also be doubled.
2. Falling Rate period
• This occurs when the surface moisture of the fish has evaporated. During this
stage water molecules take progressively longer time to reach the surface from the
deeper lying part. The shrinkage effects which have partially taken place also make
diffusion difficult. Hence, drying proceeds in a much slower phase. During this period
drying rate is dependent on the temperature of the drying in as much as the material
tends to assume the temperature of the surroundings.
Finding Moisture Content of Dried Fish
• In finding the moisture content of dried fish and other fishery products, the formula is
as follows:
Wd
% moisture = Wf x 100
Where:
• Wd = Weight of dried fish
• Wf = weight of fresh fish
Methods of Drying Fish
1. Dry salting.
• Methods of drying fish where the fish are sprinkled and
blended thoroughly with dry salt before drying under the
heat of the sun.
2. Brine salting.
• The fish are soaked in saturated brine solution few hours
prior to drying under the heat of the sun.
Factors Affecting Drying
1.Humidity of Air
2.Velocity of the wind
3.Intensity of sunshine
Humidity - amount of moisture in air
Velocity - speed of air/wind
Factors Affecting Dehydration
1.Kind of drier used
2.Temperature range
3.Storage of finished product
4.Relative humidity
The finished products of drying and dehydration is commonly
called daing or tuyo
Smoking
method of preserving fish by the application of smoke and other
interrelated processes such as salting, drying and heat treatment
Smokehouse - an airtight container where smoke can be introduced.
Types of smoking
1.Hot Smoking or barbecuing - a slow type of broiling that places the
poduct in close proximity to the fire. The food is cooked and smoked in
temperature ranging 150◦F to 190◦F.
2.Cold smoking - method of smoking in which the fish are hung at some
distance from a low smoldering fire and cured at temperatures ranging
from 90◦F to 110◦F.
Factors Affecting Smoking
1. Kind of Fish - fat fish are preferable to lean ones. Scaly fish
are usually used to obtain an attractive appearance of the
finished product
2. Condition of raw materials
a. Kind of smoke-producing materials
b. Hard wood - good quality of smoke is produced
c. Soft wood - thin smoke is produced; thus, a low grade of
smoked product
3. Length of smoke curing
PICKLING - preservation of food by the use of vinegar and other spices.
Pickling of fish as a method of preservation is not commercially done in
the Philippines because the preservative action of vinegar is short. Pickling
has some digestive action in fish which renders it softer and pastier.
Pickled fish is usually used as appetizer so preservation by this method is
recommended for use at home.

CANNING - application of heat to food in a hermetically sealed container

at a temperature and for a period of time sufficient to destroy
microorganisms and to render any bacterial cell for a definite period of
time.
BASIC CANNING EQUIPMENT
1. Can sealer - a machine or instrument that is used to close the open end
of tin cans.
2. Pressure cooker - a modern household device used for processing food
for a definite period of time and pressure.
3. Tin cans and glass jars - containers locally available for canning purposes
only
4. Measuring spoons & cups – devices used to measure liquids and solids
ingredients
5. Colander - a receptacle for draining purposes
6. Basins - containers used for washing and for the preparation of brine

7. Thermometer – a device used to check temperatures of cooking,

drying and cold storage
8. A clock – an instrument used to determine the length of processing,
salting, steaming or frying
9. Knives - tools used in cleaning, cutting fish into accurate sizes
10. Cutting board – a durable board used primarily as guide so that exact
sizes of fish will fit into the different containers
CHILLING - a process whereby the product is cooled to the temperature
of melting ice 0◦C (32◦F). The usual cooling medium is ice.
FREEZING – a process of lowering the temperatures of fish from 0◦C to
5◦C in two hours or less and further reducing the temperature to
recommended storage temperature of 30◦C. In this method, water in
the flesh of the fish is crystallized.
UTILIZATION OF FISHERY BY PRODUCTS – the conversion of waste
materials coming from fish and other marine products into secondary
products
 Fish is the major product of the sea. More than 2,400 species of
fish thrive in our country but only approximately 100 species have
commercial value products.
Notable to mention among the fish species are the:
-milkfish, our national fish;
-tilapia, the poor man’s fish, and
-tuna, the chicken from the sea.
Aside, our waters is the home of plant and animal life which are
economic Importance to man.
 Scope of the seaweed industry
Brown seaweeds
The more useful brown seaweeds grow in cold waters in both the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres. They thrive best in waters up to about 20°C. Brown
seaweeds are found in warmer waters, but these are less suitable for alginate
production and rarely used as food.
Red seaweeds
The main uses of red seaweeds are as food and as sources of two hydrocolloids: agar
and carrageenan.
Porphyra species are the largest source of food from red seaweeds.
 Mangrove
Mangrove trees grow where no tree has grown before. They are able
to survive inundation by salt water twice a day, and in "soil" which is
unstable and poor in oxygen (anaerobic). They also have to deal with
swollen rivers carrying silt during the wet season, as well as violent
storms that hit the coasts.
 Role in the habitat:
• Refuge: Tree climbing crabs and sea snails climb up their aerial roots at high tide to avoid
aquatic predators. The roots provide a surface for all kinds of creatures from algae to
shellfish. And the tangle of roots provide hiding places for young fishes and shrimps from
larger predators.
• Food: While on the tree, leaves are eaten by all kinds of creatures. Monkey snack on the
shoots and leaves, small insects nibble on them. Fallen leaves are an important source of
nutrients both within the mangrove habitat and when it is flushed out to the coral reefs.
• Natural water filter: Underwater, a huge number of filter-feeders are fastened on the
tangle of roots: barnacles, sponges, shellfish. These filter feeders clean the water of
nutrients and silt.
• Stabilize the coast and river banks: Their roots prevents mud and sand from being washed
away with the tide and river currents.
 Marine Biodiversity
• In the Philippines, the greatest marine biodiversity can be found in the mixed
coastal fauna of the coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass beds.
• These habitats host well over 5,000 species of plants and animals, including,
according to one estimate, 1,400 species of fish, 1,400 species of crustaceans,
more than 900 species of seaweeds, and as an untold number of unknown
species.
• More than 17% of the better known fish are endemic to the Philippines, and there
are more than 90 genera and at least 400 species of coral known to thrive in
Philippine tropical waters.
 Coastal Habitats
• Coral Reefs. The Philippines lies in the Indo-West Pacific Region,
reputedly the world’s highest biodiversity marine area, and is part of
what is known as the "coral triangle," the center of the most diverse
habitat in the marine tropics.
• Reports say the country’s coral reefs host about 400 species of corals,
971 species of benthic algae, and a third of the 2,300 fish species
known to inhabit Philippine waters.
• There are 27,000 sq km of coral reef areas in the Philippines, with 60%
of them occurring in Palawan.
• Beach systems. Most small Philippine islands have coral sand
beaches, i.e., beaches formed by coral reef growth and
erosion.
• Forming an integral part of the reef communities, these
beaches depend on healthy coral reefs for continued supplies
of sand, at the same time supporting crustaceans, mollusks
and some worms.
• Undisturbed beaches also serve as nesting places for sea
turtles. Unregulated and unplanned development of beaches
for tourism and the quarrying of sand for construction and
other purposes are two of the most common threats to
beaches in the Philippines.
• Seagrasses. According to seagrass expert Miguel D. Fortes, (Seagrasses: A
Resource Unknown in the ASEAN Region), the Philippines has 16 known
species of seagrasses, the highest number in the Indo-Pacific region.
• These species are valued mainly for their role as fish nursery areas and as
foraging grounds for food fish, dugong, turtles and wading birds.
• The depletion of seagrass beds is known to result in high water turbidity
and lower production of seagrasses and their associated fauna.
• Like the other coastal ecosystems, seagrass ecosystems in the Philippines
are under threat from various natural and man-made forces -- typhoons,
tidal waves, and volcanic activity as well as mining, aquaculture,
deforestation and blast fishing
• Poriferans- is the sponge used for ornamental and cleaning
purposes
• Corals and jelly- are coelenterates that have economic
importance
• Sea cucumber- processed into beche-de-mer
• Mollusks- that include the clams, mussels, oysters, scallops,
cuttle fish, octopus and squid are not only prized for their meat
but also include their shells.
• Crustaceans- are shellfishes like crabs, prawns, lobsters, and
shrimps that are favorites in restaurants because of their savory
taste. These resources are our export winners in fisheries if
propagated and cultivated efficiently.
 Lime Computation
Amount of lime to be used when soil or water is analyzed

Formula: QL= DpH - ApH × 0.5 tons/ ha × area

0.1 NVL
Where:
QL = quantity of required lime
DpH = desired pH
ApH = actual average pH reading of the pond soil
NVL = neutralizing value of lime
For agriculture lime = 1
For quicklime = 1.73
For hydrated lime = 1.35
A = Area of the pond (in hectare)
Example:
QL (Agricultural lime)= DpH – ApH x 0.5 tons/ ha x area
0.1 x NVL

QL = (6.8 – 6.5) x 0.5 tons/ ha x 1 ha

0.1 x 1

= 0.3 x 0.5 tons/ha x 1 ha

0.1
= 1.5 tons agriculture lime
 Stock Sampling
• Average Body Weight(ABW)
= total weight at a particular time (g)
total number of fish samples

Sample No. of fish Total wt (g)

1 30 900
2 40 1200
3 50 1050
• Fishpond Lay Out
A one hectare lay out of a conventional pond system
with the following specifications:
Area = 10,000 m2
NP = 1% of the total production area
TP = 9% of the production area
RP = 80% of the production area
CP = At least 2% of the NP
NP = 10,000 x 1%
= 10,000 x 0.01
= 100 m2

RP = 10,000 x 80%
= 10,000 x 0.80
= 8,000 m2

CP = 100 x 2%
= 100 x 0.02
= 2 m2
Type of Nets for Cage Fabrication

• B- NET (1/4 ― mesh)

• DD- NET (3/8 ― mesh)
• CC-NET (1/2 ― mesh)

There are many kinds of nets that could be used for fabrication. The most common
are the B-net (1/4” mesh), DD-net (3/8” mesh), and CC-net (1/2”). However, the most
popular is the B-net because smaller fingerlings do not need a nursery cage. It is
cheaper per unit area because it is wider (108 inches) than the other nets, hence,
labor cost in fabricating cages is much lower, and tearing of one or two mesh do not
easily provide an escape route for bigger fish.
Farming System distributions
• The Five major provinces for Milkfish Production
1.Pangasinan
2.Bulacan
3.Capiz
4.Iloilo
5.Negros Occidental
84.37% - brakish water fishpond
3.91% - marine fishpens
3.62% - marine fish cages
3.56% - freshwater fish pens
1.89% - brakish water fish pens
• The five major producing provinces of shrimp/prawn
1. Pampanga
2. Zamboanga del Sur/Sibugay
3. Lanao Del Norte
4. Bataan
5. Bohol
• The entire production is coming from brakish water fish ponds.
• Five major tilapia producing provinces
1. Pampanga
2. Batangas
3. Bulacan
4. Laguna
5. Sultan Kudarat
• Most tilapia production are coming from freshwater fishponds around 53.88%
• Five major provinces that produces Carp
1. Rizal
2. Lanao del Norte
3. Manila
4. Pamapanga
5. Bukidnon
• Top Five seaweed-producing provinces
1. Tawi-tawi
2. Sulu
3. Palawan
4. Zamboanga City
5. Bohol
• All seaweed production are coming from open coastal waters
 PRINCIPAL FISHING GROUNDS AND PRODUCTION
Fishing Grounds Production in tons
1. Sulu Sea (along Palawan waters) 204,872,930

2. Visayan Sea 81,115,190

3. Malampaya Sound 22,884,000
4. Manila Bay 18,113,490
5. San Miguel Bay, (between Camarines 16,091,930
Norte and Camarines Sur)
6. Sibuguey Bay, (south of Zamboanga del Sur) 9,847,370

7. Tayabas Bay, (south of Quezon) 9,819,590

8. Moro Gulf, (between Zamboanga and 6,494,590
Cotabato)
9. Lamon Bay, (east of Quezon and south of 5,925,350
Polilio Island)
10. Samar Sea 4,868,310
 LEADING PROVINCES IN FISHPOND DEVELOPMENT
Province Area in Has. Production in tons
1. Bulacan 16,172.15 14,555,470
2. Iloilo 17,351.10 13,880,880
3. Pampanga 9,208.92 8,288,030
4. Pangasinan 9,552.56 7,618,050
5. Capiz 11,240.22 6,744.130
 LEADING PROVINCES WITH POTENTIAL FISHPOND SITES

Province Swampland available for development

(hectares)

1. Northern Samar 113,368

2. Agusan del Sur 44,561
3. Cotabato 58,557
4. Palawan 21,673
5. Davao del Norte 20,715
6. Pampanga 20,685
Problems of the Fishing Industry
The fishing industry is beset with many problems. Inspite of
the fact that the Philippines has favorable conditions for the
development of the fishery resources still up to now, we are
importing fish products.
Foremost among these problems as cited by the Philippine
Fisheries Commission are the following:
1. Lack of technical know-how and technical manpower. To
remedy this more vigorous programs should be put up to train
technical manpower on fisheries.
2. Inadequate transportation, distribution and refrigeration , in the
centers of production. The acquisition of these facilities should be
fully supported by the government and private individuals who go
into business should be given incentives.
3. Imbalance in exploitation effort. Fishermen’s cooperatives should
be organized so that the capital and equipment may be used to
utilize under exploited fishery resources and protect the over
exploited areas.
4. Alarming increase of water pollution cases. The National
Pollution Control Commission should be given more support by the
government so that appropriate control measures can be enforced
that will minimize the bad effects of water pollution in aquatic
resources.
5. Difficult execution of management due to dual control of
freshwater areas. A law or decree should be promulgated that
will place under national control the fisheries of major lakes,
rivers, and marshes of the country or at least all those whose
areas exceed 1,000 hectares.
6. Inadequacy of fish seedlings. More national, provincial, and
community fish nurseries should be established especially, in
potential development areas throughout the country.
7. Financing. Financing institutions should extend liberal credit
facilities for the development, expansion, and improvement of
the fishing industry.
Seven Major Aquaculture in the Philippines
1.Seaweed
2.Milkfish
3.Tilapia
4.Shrimp
5.Carp
6.Oyster
7.Mussel
 OTHER TERMINOLOGIES
• Acre-Foot: A water volume equivalent to one surface acre with a depth of
one foot; equal to 325,850 gallons or approximately 2,718,000 pounds of
water.
• Aeration: The mixing of air and water by wind action, or by air forced
through water, generally refers to a process by which oxygen is added to
water.
• Air: The gases surrounding the earth; consists of approximately 78%
nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and minute
quantities of helium, krypton, neon, and xenon, plus water vapor.
• Algae Bloom: A high density or rapid increase in abundance of algae.
• Alkalinity: The ability of a mineral solution to neutralize hydrogen ions;
usually expressed as equivalents of calcium carbonate.
• Ammonia: The gas NH3 highly soluble in water. Ionized ammonia (NH4+) is relatively
non-toxic to fish while the un-ionized form is extremely toxic. The percent of the total
ammonia in the un-ionized form is a function of pH and temperature.
• Ammonia Nitrogen: Also called total ammonia. The summed weight of nitrogen in
both the ionized (ammonium, NH4+) and molecular (NH3) forms of dissolved ammonia
(NH4 - N plus NH3-N). Ammonia values are reported as N (the hydrogen being ignored
in analyses).
• Ammonium: The ionized form of ammonia, NH4+ .
• Anal Fin: The fin on the ventral median line behind the anus.
• Anti-Seep Collar: A plate, usually constructed of concrete or steel attached around a
drain pipe and extending about two feet outward. It is buried in the pond levee to
retard the seepage of water through the levee along the drain pipe.
• Anus: The external posterior opening of the alimentary tract; the vent.
• Aquaculture: Controlled culture and propagation of aquatic animals, crustaceans,
shellfish, and plants.
• Barrow Pits: Ponds and lakes created after the excavation of fill material used in road
construction.
• Bicarbonate: The HCO3- ion, or any salt formed with it such as sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3)
• Broodstock: Adult fish retained for spawning.
• Buffer: Chemical capable of taking up or giving up hydrogen ions and sustains pH
within a narrow range.
• Cage Culture: A production method in which barrow pits, farm ponds, or lakes are
used for fish production by containing the fish in cages placed in the water.
• Calcium Carbonate: A relatively insoluble salt, CaCO3, the primary constituent of
limestone and a common constituent of hard water.
• Carbon Dioxide: A colorless, odorless gas, CO2, resulting from the oxidation of
carbon-containing substances; highly soluble in water. Toxic to fish at high levels.
Toxicity to fish increases at low levels of oxygen. May be used as an anesthetic.
• Carbonate: The CO3- ion, or any salt formed with it, such as calcium carbonate, CaCO3.
• Carnivorous: Feeding or preying on animals.
• Carrying Capacity: The population, number, or weight of a species that a given
environment can support.
• Caudal Fin: The tail fin of fish.
• Cavity Spawners: Species, such as catfish, which spawn in a cavity along the bank of a
pond. In commercial aquaculture a container such as a milk can is substituted.
• Cold Water Species: Generally, fish that spawn in water temperatures below 55°F. The
main cultured species are trout and salmon. See Cool water Species; Warm Water
Species.
• Cool Water Species: Generally, fish that spawn in temperatures between 40° and 60° F.
The main cultured cool water species are muskellunge, sauger, walleye, and yellow
perch. See Cold water Species; Warm Water Species.
• Core-trench: A barrier made of compacted clay that anchors the pond levee to the
surrounding topography.
• Count: A marketing unit of measurement equal to number per pound. For example, a
20 count would be the same as 20 per pound.
• Cubic Foot Per Minute: Flow rate equal to 449 gallons per minute.
• Dechlorination: Removal of the residual hypochlorite or chloramine from water to
allow its use in fish culture. Charcoal is used frequently because it removes much of
the hypochlorite and fluoride. Charcoal is inadequate for removing chloramine.
• Denitrification: A biochemical reaction in which nitrate (NO3-) is reduced to NO2, N2O,
and nitrogen gas.
• Diet: Food regularly provided and consumed.
• Dissolved Oxygen: The amount of elemental oxygen, O2, in solution under existing
atmospheric pressure and temperature.
• Dissolved Solids: The residue of all dissolved materials when all water is evaporated.
• Effluent: The discharge from a rearing facility, treatment plant, or industry.
• Evisceration: The removal of the internal organs during processing.
• Egg: The mature female germ cell, ovum.
• Fat: An ester composed of fatty acid(s) and glycerol.
• Fingerling: The stage in a fish's life between 1 inch and the length at which it is restocked for grow-out
to market size.
• Flow Rate: The volume of water moving past a given point in a unit of time, usually expressed as cubic
feet per second (cfs) or gallons per minute (gpm).
• Food Conversion: A ratio of food intake to body weight gain; more generally, the total weight of all
feed fed to a lot of fish divided by the total weight gain of the fish lot. The units of weight and the time
interval over which they are measured must be the same. The better the conversion, the lower the
ratio.
• Formulated Feed: A combination of ingredients that provides specific amounts of nutrients per weight
of feed.
• Free Board: The distance between the crown of a pond levee and the surface of the water inside the
pond. Usually one to three feet of freeboard is recommended.
• Fresh Water: Water containing less than 0.05% total dissolved salts by weight.
• Fry: The stage in a fish's life from the time it hatches until it reaches 1 inch in length.
• Genus: A unit of scientific classification that includes one or several closely related species.The
scientific name for each organism includes designation for genus and species.
• Gills: The highly vascular, fleshy filaments used in aquatic respiration and excretion.
• Gonads: The reproductive organs (testes or ovaries).
• Hardness: The ability of water to neutralize soap, due to the presence of cations such as calcium and
magnesium; usually expressed as parts per million equivalents of calcium carbonate. Refers to the calcium
and magnesium ion concentration in water on a scale of very soft (0-20 ppm as CaCO 3), soft (20-50 ppm),
hard (50-500 ppm) and very hard (55+ ppm).
• Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP): A mandatory Food and Drug Administration (FDA) seafood
inspection program required by fish processors, wholesalers, and retailers.
• Hybrid: Progeny resulting from a cross between parents that are genetically unlike.
• Hydrogen Ion Concentration: The cause of acidity in water. See pH.
• Hydrogen Sulfide: An odorous, soluble gas, H2S, resulting from anaerobic decomposition of sulfur-containing
compounds, especially proteins.
• Incubation (Eggs): Period from fertilization of the egg until it hatches.
• Intensive Culture: Rearing of fish at densities greater than can be supported in the natural environment;
utilizes high water flow or exchange rates, aeration, and requires the feeding of formulated feeds.
• Juvenile: Fish less than one year old. Also refers to fingerlings.
• Kettle: A constructed basin near the drain of a pond used for concentrating fish during harvest. Also referred
to as a catch basin.
• Lime: Calcium Oxide, Quicklime, or Burnt Lime used as a disinfectant for fish-holding
facilities (produces heat and extreme alkaline conditions). Agriculture lime is used to
increase the alkalinity of water in pond settings. Sodium bicarbonate is used to
increase the alkalinity in water recirculating systems.
• Liquid Oxygen: A form of oxygen cooled to a liquid state and used commonly in
recirculating aquaculture systems because it is cheaper per unit than gaseous
oxygen.
• McDonald Jar: A type of incubator usually made from clear plastic designed to hold
fertilized eggs during the hatching process.
• Metabolism: Processes involved in the release of body energy, the building and
repair of body tissue, and the excretion of waste materials; combination of
anabolism and catabolism. As a rule, the metabolic rate of fish doubles for every
18°F increase.
• Mouth Brooder: A species of fish in which either the female or male incubates the
fertilized eggs in the mouth. Most species of tilapia grown in the United States are
maternal mouth brooders.
• Nitrification: A method (normally biological) through which ammonia is biologically oxidized to
nitrite and then nitrate.
• Nitrite: The NO2- ion.
• Nitrogen: An odorless, gaseous element that makes up 78% of the earth's atmosphere, and is a
constituent of all living tissue. It is almost inert in its gaseous form.
• Nitrogenous Wastes: Simple nitrogen compounds produced by the metabolism of proteins, such as
urea and uric acid.
• Nitrifying Bacteria: Species of bacteria involved in nitrification. Nitrosommonas sp. oxidizes NH3 to
NO2- and Nitrobacter sp. oxides NO2- to NO3- .
• Operculum: The bony covering that protects the gills.
• Osmosis: The diffusion of liquid that takes place through a semipermeable membrane between
solutions starting at different osmotic pressures, and that tends to equalize those pressures. Water
always moves toward the more concentrated solution, regardless of the substances dissolved, until
the concentration of dissolved particles is equalized, regardless of electric charge.
• Ovaries: The female reproductive organs.
• Oxygen Depletion/Low Oxygen: A condition, normally occurring at night, in which oxygen
dissolved in pond water has been depleted mainly because of the decomposition of organic matter
and respiration of organisms in the pond.
• Part Per Thousand (ppt): A concentration at which one unit is contained in a total of one thousand
units. Seawater (35 ppt) is normally expressed in ppt.
• pH: An expression of the acid-base relationship designated as the logarithm of the reciprocal of the
hydrogen-ion activity; the value of 7.0 expresses neutral solutions; values decreasing below 7.0
represent increasingly acidic solutions; values increasing about 7.0 represent increasingly basic
solution.
• Photosynthesis: The formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water that takes place in
the chlorophyll-containing tissues of plants exposed to light; oxygen is produced as a by-product.
• Phytoplankton: Microscopic plants suspended in water with little or no capability for controlling
their position in the water mass; frequently referred to as algae.
Plankton The various, mostly microscopic, aquatic organisms (plants and animals) that serve as food
for larger aquatic animals.
• Pokiothermic: The ability of fish to take on approximately the same body temperature as the
ambient temperature of their environment. Also referred to as cold-blooded.
• Pond: A closed production system in which excavated soil is used to build levees and provide a
gradual bottom slope.
• Pond Levee: The wall of a pond which is constructed to hold in the water.
• Predacious/Carnivorous Fish: A fish species that eats other fish.
• Quality Assurance: A procedure used to increase evidence of safety and quality of farm-raised food fish
species.
• Raceway: A production system in which water flows through a series of troughs or tanks at relatively high flow
rate. Smaller fish are usually stocked at the beginning of the raceway and larger fish stocked toward the end.
• Recirculating, Reuse, Recycle Aquaculture Systems: The use of water more than one time for fish
propagation. There may or may not be water treatment between uses and different rearing units may be
involved.
• Respiration: The utilization of oxygen in the breakdown of carbohydrates and releases carbon dioxide and
water as by-products.
• Salinity: Concentration of sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, bicarbonate, carbonate, sulfate, and
halides (chloride, fluoride, bromide) in water. See Dissolved Solids.
• Saturation: In solutions, the maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved in a liquid without it
being precipitated or released into the air.
• Sea Water: Water containing from 3.0 to 3.5% total salts.
• Sediment: Settleable solids that form bottom deposits.
• Seines: Nets used to harvest fish from ponds. Seines are usually 25% longer than the width of the
pond and have a depth 25% deeper than the maximum depth of the pond.
• Settleable Solids: That fraction of the suspended solids that will settle out of suspension under
quiescent conditions.
• Silt: Soil particles carried or deposited by moving water.
• Slope: The change of height (rise) or a given distance (run). Slope is calculated as c 2 = a2 + b2 where
slope is c2.
• Sodium Bicarbonate: A chemical compound (NaHCO3) used as a buffer in recirculating aquaculture
systems.
• Solubility: The degree to which a substance can be dissolved in a liquid; usually expressed as
milligrams per liter or percent.
• Spawning (Hatchery Context): Act of obtaining eggs from female fish and sperm from male fish.
• Species: The largest group of similar individuals that actually or potentially can successfully
interbreed with one another, but not with other such groups; systematic units including geographic
races and varieties, are included in a genus.
• Stress: A state manifested by a syndrome or bodily change caused by some force, conditions, or
circumstance (i.e., by a stressor) in or on an organism or on one of its physiological or anatomical
systems. Any condition that forces an organism to expend more energy to maintain stability.
• Substrate Spawners: Species of animals which spawn on substrate such as gravel, rock, perlon
mats, or other material.
• Suspended Solids: Non-seattleable articles retained in suspension in the water column.
• Thiosulfate, Sodium (Sodium Hyposulfite, Hypo, Antichlor) Na2S2O3: Used to remove chlorine
from solution or as a titrant for determination of dissolved oxygen by the Winkler method.
• Total Solids: All of the solids in the water, including dissolved, suspended, and settleable
components.
• Toxicity: A relative measure of the ability of a chemical to be toxic. Usually refers to the ability
of a substance to kill or cause an adverse effect. High toxicity means that small amounts are
capable of causing death or ill health.
• Toxin: A particular class of poisons, to which the body may respond by the production of
antitoxins.
• Turbidity: Presence of suspended or colloidal matter or planktonic organisms that reduces light
penetration of water.
• Ultraviolet Light: A light source with a wave length less than 4,000 angstroms used for
disinfecting hatchery water.
• Urea: A nitrogenous waste product of mammals containing two nitrogen ions.
• Uric Acid: A nitrogenous waste product of birds containing four nitrogen ions.
• Vitamins: Essential nutritive factors required in small amounts for the regulation of
metabolism.
• Vertical Substrate Spawners: Species of animals such as angelfish that normally spawn
on rooted aquatic plant leaves in their natural habitat. In commercial aquaculture strips
of slate are substituted for plants.
• Warm Water Species: Generally, fish that spawn at temperatures above 60°F. The chief
cultured warm water species are basses, sunfish, catfish, and minnows. See Cold Water
Species; Cool Water Species.
• Water Quality: As it relates to fish nutrition and general fish health, involves dissolved
minerals, gases, suspended, and settleable solids found in fresh water.
• Winkler: A calorimetric titration method of determining the dissolved oxygen
concentration in water.
• Xanthophylls: A class of naturally occurring yellow and orange plant pigments added to
fish feeds to enhance the color of skin pigments or muscle. In white flesh fish,
xanthophylls impart an undesirable yellow color.
• Yeast: A component of fish feed, especially for larvae feeding used for its high
protein content.
• Zooplankton: Minute animals in water, chiefly rotifers and crustaceans, that depend
upon water movement to carry them about, having only weak capabilities for
movement. They are important prey for young fish.
• Zygote: Fertilized egg.