What is Computer ?

A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and processes it with a set of instructions (a program) to
produce the result as output. It renders output just after performing mathematical and logical operations and can save the output for
future use. It can process numerical as well as non-numerical calculations. The term "computer" is derived from the Latin word
"computare" which means to calculate.
Computer Hardware
Computer hardware includes the physical
parts of a computer, such as the case, central
processing unit, random access memory,
monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data
storage, graphics card, sound card, speakers
and motherboard
Computer Software
Software, which is abbreviated as SW or
S/W, is a set of programs that enables the
hardware to perform a specific task. All the
programs that run the computer are software.
The software can be of Two types: system
software, application software.
System Software
System Software is a set of programs that
control and manage the operations of
computer hardware. The system software is
the interface between the hardware and user
applications
Operating System
An operating system (OS) is a program that acts
as an interface between the system hardware and
the user. Moreover, it handles all the interactions
between the software and the hardware. All the
working of a computer system depends on the OS
at the base level. Further, it performs all the
functions like handling memory, processes, the
interaction between hardware and software, etc.
Application Software
An application program is a computer
program designed to carry out a specific task
other than one relating to the operation of the
computer itself, typically to be used by end-
users. Word processors, media players, and
accounting software are examples
What is Language?
Language is a mode of communication that is
used to share ideas, opinions with each
other. For example, if we want to teach
someone, we need a language that is
understandable by both communicators.
Programming Language
As we know, to communicate with a person, we need a
specific language, similarly to communicate with
computers, programmers also need a language is called
Programming language.
A programming language is a computer language that is
used by programmers (developers) to communicate
with computers. It is a set of instructions written in any
specific language ( C, C++, Java, Python) to perform a
specific task
A programming language is mainly used to develop
desktop applications, websites, and mobile
applications.
. Low-level programming language
Low-level language is machine-dependent (0s and 1s) programming language. The
processor runs low- level programs directly without the need of a compiler or
interpreter, so the programs written in low-level language can be run very fast.
i. Machine Language
Machine language is a type of low-level programming language. It is also called as machine code or object code. Machine language is easier
to read because it is normally displayed in binary or hexadecimal form (base 16) form. It does not require a translator to convert the programs
because computers directly understand the machine language programs.
The advantage of machine language is that it helps the programmer to execute the programs faster than the high-level programming language.
ii. Assembly Language
Assembly language (ASM) is also a type of low-level programming language that is designed for specific
processors. It represents the set of instructions in a symbolic and human-understandable form. It uses an
assembler to convert the assembly language to machine language.
2. High-level programming language
High-level programming language (HLL) is designed
for developing user-friendly software programs
and websites. This programming language requires a
compiler or interpreter to translate the program into
machine language (execute the program).
The main advantage of a high-level language is that it
is easy to read, write, and maintain.
High-level programming language includes Python,
Java, JavaScript, PHP, C#, C++, Objective C,
Cobol, Perl, Pascal, LISP, FORTRAN, and Swift
programming language.
3. Middle-level programming language
Middle-level programming language lies between the
low-level programming language and high-level
programming language. It is also known as the
intermediate programming language and pseudo-
language.
A middle-level programming language's advantages are
that it supports the features of high-level programming,
it is a user-friendly language, and closely related to
machine language and human language.
Example: C, C++, language
What is assembler?
Assembler
The Assembler is a Software that converts an assembly language code to machine code. It takes basic Computer commands and
converts them into Binary Code that Computer’s Processor can use to perform its Basic Operations. These instructions are assembler
language or assembly language.
What is compiler?
A compiler is system software (a set of a computer
program) that converts source code written in a
programming language (source language, usually
HLL) into another computer language (target
language). It processes every statement written in a
particular programming language and turns them to
machine language. After writing the program the
programmer runs the code in an appropriate
language compiler specifying the name of the file
that contains the source statements.
Interpreter
An interpreter is a computer program that is used to directly execute program instructions written using one of the many high-level
programming languages.
The interpreter transforms the high-level program into an intermediate language that it then executes, or it could parse the high-level
source code and then performs the commands directly, which is done line by line or statement by statement.
t.
What is variable
•Variable is a storage area which is used to store data. Variables
contain data which can be
changed at any time during program execution.
The variable are the names given to identify the
specific program elements. Therefore , variable are
also called as identifiers. The variable represent
a particular memory location.
Example of variable
MarksGross_salaryNum1Length
Rules of forming variable name
1. The first character of a variable name must be alphabets or
underscore(_)
2. All succeeding characters consists of letters and digits.
3. Both uppercase and lowercase variable are significant in program.
4. Writing the variable names in lowercase is a good programing
practice.
5. Keywords should not be used as variables.
6. Special character are not allowed.
7. White space is note allowed.
8. There is no limit on the number of characters in a variable name.
9. Always choose an appropriate variable name that makes proper
sense to the user.
1:- global variable:-
Global variable is a variable which is declared outside the functions. Global variables can be used in all functions.
2:- local variable:-
Local variable is a variable which is declared inside the function. Local variables are used only where the function is declared.
What is Linker?
Linker is a special program that connects object files generated by compiler or assembler.
Linker's job is to link. It combines two or more object files and creates a single .exe file.
Linker is also known as Link editor and Blinder.
Linker is also used to link object modules with system libraries.
The main function of the linker is to generate the .exe file.
There are two types of linkers, first is linkage editor and second is dynamic linker. Both of these are explained below.
Types of Linker
Linkage Editor
Dynamic Linker
1- Linkage Editor
It is a type of linker that is used to generate
relocatable and executable modules.
2- Dynamic Linker
Dynamic linker is a linker that works to block
the external module until the executable
module is generated.
What is Loader?
Loader is also a special program which loads the file generated by the linker into primary memory.

The loader is a key part of the operating system that ensures that all necessary programs and files are loaded into primary memory.

Loader is used to start the program.

The loader also works to convert the virtual address of the program into a physical address.
.
What is Software Testing
Software testing is the process of executing a program whose main objective is to find errors. If we want to
make our software free from errors then we have to do testing.
There are many types of software testing. And each testing has its own
characteristics, advantages and disadvantages.
1:- Unit Testing
Unit testing is a method of software testing in which the smallest parts
of the software application (which we call units) are tested.

In simple words, “unit testing is a type of testing in which the program

is broken into pieces, and each piece is tested in detail.”
The main purpose of this testing is to ensure that the source code of
each unit of software is correct and can be used.

Earlier adhoc tools were used to test units but nowadays frameworks
(Java Framework, .Net Framework and PHP Framework etc.) are used
to test units.
Advantage of unit testing
1:- Through this testing, we find defects and bugs in the software in the
early stages, later it becomes very difficult to find defects and bugs.

2:-This testing makes the coding process more effective and agile so
that we can add more and more features to the software.

3:-When we do unit testing, we have very little need for manual testing.
Anyway, manual testing is very boring and expensive.
4:- Through this testing we can improve the design of the software
without breaking its design.
5:- When we detect bugs in advance, it saves our time and cost.
6:-It increases the efficiency of testing code and it becomes easier to
maintain.
7:-One advantage of this testing is that it provides us with updated
documentation of the software
2. integration testing
integration testing is a method of software testing in which two or more software units or modules are combined together and tested as a group.

The main objective of this testing is to find bugs and faults among integrated units and to identify the functioning, performance and reliability
among the units.
Integration testing approach
1:-Top-down approach
2:-Bottom-up approach
3:-Big bang approach
Top-down:-In this integration testing, the top
level integrated units are tested first and then
the sub-units below it are tested.
2:-Bottom-up:-In this integration testing, first
the bottom level sub-units are tested and then
the main units above are tested
3:-Big bang:-In this type of testing, all the units are integrated together and after this
everyone is tested in a group.
In this integration testing, no single unit can be integrated until all the units are ready.
What is Debugging ?
Debugging is a process by which errors and bugs in software code are detected and corrected.

In other words, “Debugging is an important technique by which bugs and errors are found in the program and then analyzed and fixed.”
There are many steps in the debugging process. First of all the bug is identified, after that the source of the bug is found and after that the bug is fixed and the program is made
error free so that the program works properly.
Debugger tools are used to do debugging. Debugger tools are called debuggers.
Advantage of Debugging
The process of debugging starts as soon as the program is
written. And this continues until the software is created.
Following are the main benefits of debugging:-
Through this the error is detected in advance. Due to which the
process of developing software becomes easy and stress free.
It also provides very important information about the data
structure and can be easily interpreted.
With the help of debugging, the programmer or developer
removes unnecessary and redundant information from the
program.

This saves the time taken to develop software

Steps of Debugging
1:- Identifying the error – The first step is to
identify the error. If we are not successful in
identifying the error then a lot of our time is
wasted. Most of the errors reported by users
are difficult to interpret. Therefore it is very
important to identify the actual error.
2:- Finding the location of the error – After identifying
the error, we have to find the location of the error. For
this we have to look at the entire code carefully and
find the place where the error has occurred. In this step,
instead of understanding the error, we have to find it.
3:- Analyzing the Error – This is its third step. In this,
bottom up approach is used to analyze the error.
Through this we can understand the error. There are
two main objectives of analyzing bugs. Firstly, to find
other errors or bugs and secondly, to see if the bug is
fixed, it will not cause any problem.
4:- Proving the analysis – When you analyze the
original bug, you also have to find other errors present
in the applications. Automated tests are written in this
step.
5:- Avoiding problems later – In this step, we have to
collect all the unit tests for the code. Then we have to
run these unit tests. And there should not be any
problem in all these unit tests so that there is no
problem in future.
6:- Fix & Validate – Finally we have to fix all the
errors. These have to be fixed and validated.
Testing Debugging
Testing is a process of finding This is the process of correcting
bugs and errors. the bugs found during testing.

Testing is mostly performed by This is accomplished by

testers. developers or programmers.

Testing is done by the This is done only by the

development team and by development team and cannot be
external users. done by outside users.
It is based on different testing It is based on different types of
levels such as system testing, bugs.
integration testing etc.
What is Programming Errors
Errors are the problems or the faults that occur in
the program, which makes the behavior of the
program abnormal, and experienced developers
can also make these faults. Programming errors are
also known as the bugs or faults, and the process
of removing these bugs is known as debugging.
These errors are detected either during the time of
compilation or execution. Thus, the errors must be
removed from the program for the successful
execution of the program.
There are mainly five types of errors exist
in programming:
Syntax error
Run-time error
Linker error
Logical error
Semantic error
1. Syntax error
These errors are mainly occurred due to the mistakes
while typing or do not follow the syntax of the
specified programming language. These mistakes are
generally made by beginners only because they are
new to the language.
For example:
If we want to declare the variable of type integer,
int a; // this is the correct form
Int a; // this is an incorrect form.
Run-time error
Sometimes the errors exist during the execution-
time even after the successful compilation known
as run-time errors. When the program is running,
and it is not able to perform the operation is the
main cause of the run-time error. The division by
zero is the common example of the run-time
error. These errors are very difficult to find, as
the compiler does not point to these errors.
Linker error
Linker errors are mainly generated when the executable file of
the program is not created. This can be happened either due to
the wrong function prototyping or usage of the wrong header
file. For example, the main.c file contains the sub() function
whose declaration and definition is done in some other file such
as func.c. During the compilation, the compiler finds
the sub() function in func.c file, so it generates two object files,
i.e., main.o and func.o. At the execution time, if the definition
of sub() function is not found in the func.o file, then the linker
error will be thrown. The most common linker error that occurs
is that we use Main() instead of main().
Logical error
The logical error is an error that leads to an
undesired output. These errors produce the incorrect
output, but they are error-free, known as logical
errors. These types of mistakes are mainly done by
beginners. The occurrence of these errors mainly
depends upon the logical thinking of the developer.
If the programmers sound logically good, then there
will be fewer chances of these errors.
Semantic error
Semantic errors are the errors that occurred when the
statements are not understandable by the compiler.
The following can be the cases for the semantic error:
Use of a un-initialized variable.
int i;
i=i+2;
Type compatibility
int b = "javatpoint";
Errors in expressions
int a, b, c;
a+b = c;