Chapter 8

data collection methods: observation

• Observation concerns the planned watching,
recording, analysis, and interpretation of
behavior, actions, or events
FOUR KEY DIMENSIONS THAT
CHARACTERIZE THE TYPE OF
OBSERVATION
 Controlled versus uncontrolled observational studies
• Controlled observation occurs when observational research is
carried out under carefully arranged conditions.
• Uncontrolled observation is an observational technique that
makes no attempt to control, manipulate, or influence the
situation. Events are running their natural course and the
researcher observes these events without interfering in the real‐
life setting. An advantage of uncontrolled observation is that
people can be observed in their natural shopping or work
environment. A major drawback of uncontrolled observation is,
however, that it is usually difficult to untangle the often complex
situation since we do not control any factor in this. Accordingly, it
is very hard to distinguish the causes of events, actions, and
behavior.
 Participant versus nonparticipant observation

• The researcher can play one of two roles while gathering

observational data – that of a nonparticipant or a
participant observer. In the case of nonparticipant
observation, the researcher is never directly involved in the
actions of the actors, but observes them from outside the
actors’ visual horizon, for instance via a one‐way mirror or a
camera.
• Participant observation is an approach that has frequently
been used in case studies, ethnographic studies, and
grounded theory studies In participant observation the
researcher gathers data by participating in the daily life of
the group or organization under study.
 Structured versus unstructured observational studies

• Structured observation
• can be either structured or unstructured. Where the
observer has a predetermined set of categories of
activities or phenomena planned to be studied, it is
a structured observational study. Formats for
recording the observations can be specifically
designed and tailored to each study to suit the goal
of that research. Structured observation is generally
quantitative in nature.
• Unstructured observational
• it is also possible that the observer has no
definite ideas of the particular aspects that
need focus. Observing events as they take place
may also be a part of the plan as in many other
forms of exploratory and qualitative research. In
such cases, the observer will record practically
everything that is observed. Such a study will be
an unstructured observational study.
Unstructured observational studies are claimed
to be the hallmark of qualitative research.
 Concealed versus unconcealed observation

• Concealment of observation relates to whether the

members of the social group under study are told that
they are being investigated. A primary advantage of
concealed observation is that the research subjects are
not influenced by the awareness that they are being
observed. Indeed, reactivity or the extent to which the
observer affects the situation under observation could
be a major threat to the validity of the results of
observational studies.
• Unconcealed observation is more obtrusive, perhaps
upsetting the authenticity of the behavior under study.
 TWO IMPORTANT APPROACHES TO OBSERVATION

• Participant observation
• Participant observation combines the processes of participation and
observation. Nonetheless, participant observation should be distinguished from
both pure observation and pure participation .
•

• Pure observation seeks to remove the researcher from the observed actions
and behavior; the researcher is never directly involved in the actions and
behavior of the group under study.
•

• Pure participation has been described as “going native”; the researcher

becomes so involved with the group under study that eventually every
objectivity and research interest is lost . Within these two extremes, participant
observation has been successfully employed by many researchers engaged in
business research.
• A distinctive feature of participant observation
is that the researcher participates in the social
group under study, the researcher may do so to
different extents.
1- The highest degree of participation occurs with
complete participation
2- moderate participation
3- shadowing
• What to observe
• the researcher should try to keep a certain focus
during the various stages of the observation process.
Generally speaking, the most important factor in
determining what to observe is the aim or purpose of
the study. However, “[w]here to begin looking depends
on the research question, but where to focus or stop
action cannot be determined ahead of time” discern
three consecutive processes in observation that may
provide an increasingly deep understanding of the
setting that is being studied: (1) descriptive observation,
( 2) focused observation, and (3) selective observation.
• In descriptive observation, the researcher is open to everything that is
going on; data are collected that describe the setting, the subjects, and
the events that are taking place.
• The data collected during descriptive observation provide an initial story
or narrative account which may serve as a basis for the development of
a set of concepts, a theory, or even a conceptual framework. The
development of concepts, theories, and conceptual frameworks is
facilitated by a greater focus via focused and selective observation.
• Focused observation emphasizes observation (often supported by
interviews) in which the researcher will concentrate on particular types
of feelings, emotions, actions, activities, and/or events and look for
emerging themes.
selective observation the researcher focuses on different types of •
actions, activities, or events and look for regularities in them, while
being open to variations from or exceptions to emerging patterns
• Structured observation
• Structured observation is focused in nature, as it looks selectively at
predetermined phenomena.
• The focus of structured observation is fragmented into small and
manageable pieces of information (such as information on behavior,
actions, interactions, or events).
• There are different levels of structure in structured observation. For
instance, the researcher may have decided on the observation categories
in a rather precise and mutually exclusive way in advance (highly
structured observation) or start with a detailed plan of what will be
observed and how, but collect the data in a less systematic or
predetermined way (semi‐structured observation).
•
• Structured observation can also be used to generate numerical data to
test hypotheses
• The use of coding schemes in structured observation
• The development of a coding scheme is a crucial
aspect of structured observation. Coding schemes
contain predetermined categories for recording what
is observed. Such schemes come in many forms and
shapes. Some of them are very simple; they merely
allow the researcher to note whether or not a
particular event has taken place. Other schemes are
more complex; they include multiple categories,
timescales, and the like. Note that the development of
an adequate coding scheme is never a straightforward
task.
• The following considerations should be taken into account with regard to the
construction of a coding scheme.
• ● Focus. From the coding scheme it should be clear what is to be observed. For
instance, Thomas’ coding scheme should help him to establish which aspects of
the setting (for instance, how many people are waiting for their car) and which
types of behavior (for instance, the subject is walking through the showroom of
the car dealer, the subject is eating a candy bar) are to be observed and recorded.
• ● Objective. The coding scheme and the categories should require little inference
or interpretation from the researcher. Clear guidelines and detailed definitions of
categories should help the observer to objectively code events, actions, and
behavior.
• ● Ease of use. A good coding scheme is easy to use.
• ● Mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. Categories in a coding scheme
should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. Categories are mutually
exclusive if none of the categories overlap one another. A coding scheme that is
collectively exhaustive covers all possibilities (for instance, all the relevant events,
actions, and behavior) so that it is always possible to code.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION

• One of the main advantages of observation is

its directness. Another advantage of
observation is that it is possible to observe
certain groups of individuals from whom it may
otherwise be difficult to obtain information.
• Drawbacks of observational studies are
reactivity, observer bias, and that it is time
consuming, tedious and expensive.