Topic 2 – Architecture and Philosophy

• Abstraction
• Layering
• Layers and Communications
• Entities and Peers
• What is a protocol?
• Protocol Standardization
• The architects process
– How to break system into modules
– Where modules are implemented
– Where is state stored
• Internet Philosophy and Tensions 2
 Abstraction Concept
A mechanism for breaking down a problem

what not how

• eg Specification versus implementation
• eg Modules in programs
Allows replacement of implementations without affecting system
behavior
Vertical versus Horizontal
“Vertical” what happens in a box “How does it attach to the
network?”
“Horizontal” the communications paths running through the system
Hint: paths are build on top of (“layered over”) other paths 3
 Computer System
Modularity
Partition system into modules & abstractions:
• Well-defined interfaces give flexibility
– Hides implementation - can be freely changed
– Extend functionality of system by adding new
modules

• E.g., libraries encapsulating set of functionality

• E.g., programming language + compiler

abstracts away how the particular CPU works …

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Computer System Modularity (cnt’d)

• Well-defined interfaces hide information

– Isolate assumptions
– Present high-level abstractions

• But can impair performance!

• Ease of implementation vs worse

performance

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 Network System
Modularity
Like software modularity, but:
• Implementation is distributed across many
machines (routers and hosts)
• Must decide:
– How to break system into modules
• Layering
– Where modules are implemented
• End-to-End Principle
– Where state is stored
• Fate-sharing
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 Layering Concept
• A restricted form of abstraction: system functions
are divided into layers, one built upon another
• Often called a stack; but not a data structure!

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 Layers and Communications
• Interaction only between adjacent layers
• layer n uses services provided by layer n-1
• layer n provides service to layer n+1
• Bottom layer is physical media
• Top layer is application

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 Entities and Peers
Entity – a thing (an independent existence)
Entities interact with the layers above and below
Entities communicate with peer entities
– same level but different place (eg different person, different
box, different host)
Communications between peers is supported by
entities at the lower layers

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 Entities and Peers
Entities usually do something useful
– Encryption – Error correction – Reliable Delivery
– Nothing at all is also reasonable
Not all communications is end-to-end
Examples for things in the middle
– IP Router – Mobile Phone Cell Tower
– Person translating French to English

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 Layering and Embedding
In Computer Networks we often see higher-layer information embedded within lower-layer
information
• Such embedding can be considered a form of layering
• Higher layer information is generated by stripping off headers and trailers of the current layer
• eg an IP entity only looks at the IP headers
BUT embedding is not the only form of layering

Layering is to help understand a communications system

NOT
determine implementation strategy

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 source Example Embedding
message M application (also called Encapsulation)
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application
Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

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Internet protocol stack versus
OSI Reference Model

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 ISO/OSI reference model
• presentation: allow applications to
interpret meaning of data, e.g., application
encryption, compression, machine-
presentation
specific conventions
• session: synchronization, checkpointing, session
recovery of data exchange transport
• Internet stack “missing” these layers!
network
– these services, if needed, must
link
be implemented in application
physical

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 What is a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
• “what’s the time?” • machines rather than
• “I have a question” humans
• introductions • all communication activity
in Internet governed by
… specific msgs sent protocols
… specific actions taken
when msgs received, or
protocols define format, order of msgs sent
other events and received among network entities,
and actions taken on msg transmission,
receipt

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 What is a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi
TCP connection
request
Hi
TCP connection
Got the response
time? GET http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/index.html
2:00
<file>
time

Q: Other human protocols?

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 Protocol Standardization
• All hosts must follow same protocol
– Very small modifications can make a big difference
– Or prevent it from working altogether
• This is why we have standards
– Can have multiple implementations of protocol
• Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
– Based on working groups that focus on specific issues
– Produces “Request For Comments” (RFCs)
– IETF Web site is http://www.ietf.org
– RFCs archived at http://www.rfc-editor.org

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 So many Standards Problem
• Many different packet-switching networks
• Each with its own Protocol
• Only nodes on the same network could communicate

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INTERnet Solution

Gateways

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Internet Design Goals (Clark ‘88)

• Connect existing networks

• Robust in face of failures
• Support multiple types of delivery services
• Accommodate a variety of networks
• Allow distributed management
• Easy host attachment
• Cost effective
• Allow resource accountability
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Internet Motto
Real Goals
We reject kings , presidents, and voting. We believe in
rough consensus and running code.“ – David Clark

• Build something that works!

• Connect existing networks
• Robust in face of failures
• Support multiple types of delivery services
• Accommodate a variety of networks
• Allow distributed management
• Easy host attachment
• Cost effective
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 In the context of the Internet
Applications
…built on…
Reliable (or unreliable) transport
…built on…
Best-effort global packet delivery
…built on…
Best-effort local packet delivery
…built on…
Physical transfer of bits
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 Three Observations
• Each layer:
– Depends on layer below
– Supports layer above
– Independent of others

• Multiple versions in layer

– Interfaces differ somewhat
– Components pick which
lower-level protocol to use

• But only one IP layer

– Unifying protocol
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 Layering Crucial to Internet’s Success

• Reuse

• Hides underlying detail

• Innovation at each level

can proceed in parallel

• Pursued by very different

communities
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What are some of the drawbacks of
protocols and layering?

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 Drawbacks of Layering

• Layer N may duplicate lower layer functionality

– e.g., error recovery to retransmit lost data
• Information hiding may hurt performance
– e.g., packet loss due to corruption vs. congestion
• Headers start to get really big
– e.g., typical TCP+IP+Ethernet is 54 bytes
• Layer violations when the gains too great to resist
– e.g., TCP-over-wireless
• Layer violations when network doesn’t trust ends
– e.g., firewalls
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 Placing Network
Functionality
• Hugely influential paper: “End-to-End Arguments in
System Design” by Saltzer, Reed, and Clark (‘84)
– articulated as the “End-to-End Principle” (E2E)

• Endless debate over what it means

• Everyone cites it as supporting their position

(regardless of the position!)

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 Basic Observation
• Some application requirements can only be correctly
implemented end-to-end
– reliability, security, etc.

• Implementing these in the network is hard

– every step along the way must be fail proof

• Hosts
– Can satisfy the requirement without network’s help
– Will/must do so, since they can’t rely on the network

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 Example: Reliable File
Transfer
Host A Host B

Appl. Appl.

OS OK OS

• Solution 1: make each step reliable, and

string them together to make reliable end-to-
end process
• Solution 2: end-to-end check and retry
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 Discussion
• Solution 1 is incomplete
– What happens if any network element misbehaves?
– Receiver has to do the check anyway!

• Solution 2 is complete
– Full functionality can be entirely implemented at application layer
with no need for reliability from lower layers

• Is there any need to implement reliability at lower layers?

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 Summary of End-to-End
Principle
• Implementing functionality (e.g., reliability) in the network
– Doesn’t reduce host implementation complexity
– Does increase network complexity
– Probably increases delay and overhead on all applications even
if they don’t need the functionality (e.g. VoIP)

• However, implementing in the network can improve

performance in some cases
– e.g., consider a very lossy link

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 “Only-if-Sufficient”
Interpretation

• Don’t implement a function at the lower

levels of the system unless it can be
completely implemented at this level

• Unless you can relieve the burden from

hosts, don’t bother

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 “Only-if-Necessary”
Interpretation

• Don’t implement anything in the network that

can be implemented correctly by the hosts

• Make network layer absolutely minimal

– This E2E interpretation trumps performance
issues
– Increases flexibility, since lower layers stay
simple

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 “Only-if-Useful”
Interpretation

• If hosts can implement functionality

correctly, implement it in a lower layer only
as a performance enhancement
• But do so only if it does not impose burden
on applications that do not require that
functionality

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 We have some tools:
• Abstraction
• Layering
• Layers and Communications
• Entities and Peers
• Protocol as motivation
• Examples of the architects process
• Internet Philosophy and Tensions

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 Distributing Layers Across Network
• Layers are simple if only on a single machine
– Just stack of modules interacting with those
above/below

• But we need to implement layers across

machines
– Hosts
– Routers (switches)

• What gets implemented where?

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 What Gets Implemented on Host?
• Bits arrive on wire, must make it up to
application

• Therefore, all layers must exist at the host

source / destination
M application
Ht M transport
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link
physical

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What Gets Implemented on a Router?
Hn Ht M network
• Bits arrive on wire Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M

– Physical layer necessary physical

router
• Packets must be delivered to next-hop
– Datalink layer necessary

• Routers participate in global delivery

– Network layer necessary

• Routers don’t support reliable delivery

– Transport layer (and above) not supported
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What Gets Implemented on Switches?
• Switches do what routers do, except they don’t
participate in global delivery, just local delivery

• They only need to support Physical and Datalink

– Don’t need to support Network layer

• Won’t focus on the router/switch distinction

– Almost all boxes support network layer these days
– Routers have switches but switches do not have
routers
Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
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switch
The Internet Hourglass

SMTP HTTP DNS NTP Applications

TCP UDP Transport

Waist IP
IP

Data Link
Ethernet SONET 802.11 Physical

Copper Fiber Radio The Hourglass Model

There is just one network-layer protocol, IP.

The “narrow waist” facilitates interoperability. 40
 Alternative to Standardization?
• Have one implementation used by everyone

• Open-source projects
– Which has had more impact, Linux or POSIX?

• Or just sole-sourced implementation

– Skype, many P2P implementations, etc.

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 A Multitude of Apps
Problem
Application Skype SSH NFS HTTP

Transmission Coaxial Fiber Radio

Media cable optic

• Re-implement every application for every technology?

• No! But how does the Internet design avoid this?

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 Solution: Intermediate
Layers
• Introduce intermediate layers that provide set of abstractions
for various network functionality and technologies
– A new app/media implemented only once
– Variation on “add another level of indirection”

Application Skype SSH NFS HTTP

Intermediate
layers

Transmission Coaxial Fiber Packet

Media cable optic radio

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