Different theories of

how learners learn at

different ages are
investigated

HED4814
INTRODUCTION:

Understanding how learners acquire knowledge and skills at different ages is

crucial for educators, psychologists, and parents. Various theories have been
developed to explain the learning process across the lifespan. Here's an
introduction to some of the key theories that shed light on how learners learn at
different ages:
1. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget's theory focuses on children's cognitive development and how they adapt to and
understand the world around them. Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development:

• Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years): Children learn through sensory experiences and
manipulating objects.

• Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): Children begin to use language and to think symbolically,
but their understanding is often egocentric and they struggle with logic.

• Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): Children become more logical and can think about
concrete events, but struggle with abstract concepts.

• Formal Operational Stage (11 years and up): Adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly
and understand hypothetical situations.
2. Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of culture and social interaction in cognitive
development. He introduced the concept of the "zone of proximal development"
(ZPD), which is the difference between what a learner can do independently and
what they can do with guidance and encouragement from others. According to
Vygotsky, learning is a social process, and language plays a crucial role in cognitive
development.

3. Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory

Erik Erikson's theory focuses on the social and emotional development across the
lifespan, identifying eight stages from infancy to late adulthood. Each stage is
characterized by a psychosocial crisis that must be resolved for healthy development.
Erikson's theory highlights the importance of social interactions and relationships in
personal growth and learning.
Different Types of Theories
There are several influential theories that explore how learners acquire knowledge and develop at different
ages. These theories include:
Behaviorism: Behaviorism posits that learning occurs through external stimuli and responses. Learners are
considered blank slates, and associations are formed based on interactions with the environment. For
example, Pavlov’s classic experiment with dogs demonstrated how a stimulus (such as ringing a bell) could
lead to a learned response (salivating in anticipation of food) .
Cognitivism: Unlike behaviorism, cognitivism emphasizes internal mental processes. Learners actively process
information, analyze it, and construct meaning. Piaget’s stages of cognitive development highlight how
children progress through sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
stages .
Constructivism: Constructivism suggests that learners actively build their understanding by connecting new
information to existing knowledge. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interactions
and cultural context in learning .
Humanism: Humanism focuses on individual growth, self-actualization, and personal agency. It emphasizes
intrinsic motivation, self-directed learning, and the importance of positive experiences
Connectivism: In the digital age, connectivism emphasizes the role of networks, technology, and collaborative
learning. It recognizes that knowledge is distributed across various sources and connections.
Challenges in African Education
 Colonial education perpetuated rote learning and discouraged critical thinking among indigenous children.

 Post-colonial education has been criticized for its failure to promote critical thinking.

 Some African intellectuals advocate for re-appropriating pre-colonial forms of education to rediscover
African identity.

 American philosopher Matthew Lipman and his followers have shown how “Philosophy for Children” can
enhance moral, social, and cognitive development.

 To create reflective adults, we must foster reflective children.

Cognitivism
Cognitivism emphasizes internal mental processes, such as memory, problem-solving, and information
processing. Here are some key points related to Cognitivism:
1. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget proposed a series of cognitive stages that
children progress through as they mature. These stages include:
• Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years. Infants explore the world through sensory experiences and motor
actions.
• Preoperational Stage: 2 to 7 years. Children develop symbolic thinking, language, and imagination.
• Concrete Operational Stage: 7 to 11 years. Logical reasoning emerges, and children can perform mental
operations.
• Formal Operational Stage: 11 years and older. Abstract thinking, hypothetical reasoning, and problem-
solving abilities develop .
2. Information Processing Model: This model compares the human mind to a computer. It involves three
stages:
• Encoding: Transforming sensory input into a usable form.
• Storage: Retaining information over time.
• Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed .
Cognitivism Continues…..

3. Metacognition: Cognitivism emphasizes metacognitive skills—awareness and control of one’s

own cognitive processes. Learners monitor their thinking, plan strategies, and evaluate their
understanding .

4. Schemas and Assimilation/Accommodation: According to Piaget, learners organize knowledge

into mental structures called schemas. When new information fits existing schemas (assimilation),
or when schemas adapt to accommodate new information (accommodation), learning occurs.

5. Application to Teaching:
• Provide Cognitive Challenges: Design activities that engage learners’ thinking processes.
• Activate Prior Knowledge: Connect new information to existing mental frameworks.
• Promote Metacognition: Encourage reflection, self-assessment, and problem-solving strategies.
 Behaviourism
• Behaviorism as a theory of how learners learn at different ages.

1. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov):

o Ivan Pavlov’s classic experiment with dogs demonstrated how associations are formed through interactions with the
environment.
o For example, ringing a bell (stimulus) led to a learned response (salivating in anticipation of food).

2. Operant Conditioning (Skinner):

o B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory focuses on reinforcement and punishment.
o Positive reinforcement (reward) strengthens desired behaviors, while punishment weakens undesired behaviors.
o For example, students receiving praise for completing homework are more likely to continue doing so.

3. Application to Teaching:
o Clear Expectations: Set clear rules and expectations for behavior.
o Positive Reinforcement: Use rewards (verbal praise, stickers, small treats) to reinforce desired behaviors.
o Behavior Charts: Create behavior charts to track and reward positive behaviors.
o Consistent Consequences: Apply consistent consequences for undesirable behaviors.
 Constructivism
Constructivism is a theory of learning that emphasizes the active construction of knowledge by the
learner. According to constructivist theory, learners do not passively absorb information but rather
actively engage with new ideas, integrating them into what they already know to create new
understandings. This theory is particularly useful for understanding how learners of different ages
acquire knowledge and skills, as it highlights the importance of prior knowledge, experience, and the
social context of learning.
Key Principles of Constructivism
• Active Learning: Learners are not passive recipients of knowledge but active constructors. They
engage with new information by asking questions, exploring, and experimenting.
• Prior Knowledge: New learning is built upon existing knowledge. Learners must connect new
information to what they already know to make sense of it.
• Social Interaction: Learning is often a social process. Interactions with peers, teachers, and the
broader community can enrich learning experiences and help learners construct knowledge.
• Contextual Learning: Learning is situated in specific contexts. The environment in which learning
takes place can influence how knowledge is constructed and applied.
• Reflection: Reflecting on experiences is crucial for learning. It allows learners to make sense of their
experiences and integrate new knowledge into their understanding.
Humanism
Humanism, as a theory of learning, emphasizes the importance of the individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization,
personal growth, and the development of human potential. Unlike behaviorism, which focuses on observable behaviors, or
cognitivism, which concentrates on mental processes, humanism places the individual learner at the center of the educational
experience. This perspective is particularly valuable when considering how learners of different ages engage with and navigate
their learning journeys.

Key Principles of Humanism

• Intrinsic Motivation: Humanists believe that individuals are naturally curious and motivated to learn. This intrinsic
motivation is seen as a key driver of learning and personal development.
• Self-Actualization: A core concept in humanism, self-actualization refers to the realization of an individual's potential,
talents, and capabilities. Learning is viewed as a means to achieve this fulfillment.
• Learner-Centered Approach: Humanism advocates for educational practices that are centered around the needs, interests,
and experiences of the learner. This approach values the learner's perspective and encourages self-directed learning.
• Holistic Development: Humanism focuses on the development of the whole person, including emotional, social, and
creative aspects, in addition to intellectual development.
• Positive View of Human Nature: Humanists have an optimistic view of human nature, believing that individuals are
inherently good and capable of making positive changes in themselves and the world.
Connectivism
Connectivism is a relatively new theory of learning that emerged in the digital age, primarily associated
with the work of George Siemens. It posits that learning is a process of creating networks, and that
knowledge exists not only within individuals but also within the connections between them. This theory
emphasizes the role of technology and social interaction in the learning process, making it particularly
relevant in understanding how learners of different ages navigate the modern educational landscape.

• Key Principles of Connectivism

• Networking: Learning is about connecting specialized information sets and connecting to others to
facilitate understanding.
• Autonomy: Learners are autonomous and take responsibility for their learning, deciding what they
need to learn and how to access the necessary information.
• Technology: The pervasive presence of technology changes the way learning occurs, with the internet
and digital technologies playing a central role in how knowledge is acquired and shared.
• Diversity of Thought: Diverse perspectives are valued, and learning involves being open to different
thoughts and points of view.
• Continuous Learning: In a rapidly changing world, learning is an ongoing process. It is not confined to
the classroom or to specific periods of life but is a continuous activity.
African philosophy of education
1. Holistic Development:

o African philosophy of education places a strong emphasis on holistic development, encompassing not only cognitive skills but also
moral, emotional, and social well-being.

o Education is seen as a means to nurture well-rounded individuals who contribute positively to their communities.

2. Reasonableness and Deliberation:

o An African philosophy of education encourages reasonableness in articulations and moral maturity.

o Students are regarded as reasonable people, open to interpreting, analyzing, and looking beyond texts.

o Deliberation, dialogue, and dissent are essential components of this approach.

3. Contextual Relevance:

o African universities must produce knowledge that addresses public concerns, including political, economic, social, and cultural issues.

o Citizens need to be initiated into cooperative, open, and responsible ways of being and living.

o Encouraging questioning and democratic engagement can help avoid political dictatorships.
Resource Articles & Video

• ARTICLES:
• https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10648-020-09571-9?s=09
• https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=6c7b9a7b4988df15
c68a14434a5f162bef984723
• https://www.ajol.info/index.php/saje/article/view/121843
• https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191491X16300475

• VIDEO:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p723E1f6Kno
THANK YOU