Traffic

Signal
Timing
 Types of Traffic Signals

• Pre-timed signals
• Traffic-actuated signals
 Pre-timed Signals
This system assigns the right of
way at an intersection according
to a predetermined schedule.
The time interval for each signal
indication in the cycle is of fixed
length and is predetermined on a
basis of historic traffic patterns
 Advantages of Pre-timed Signals
• Easy to coordinate signals
• Timing is easily adjusted in the
field
• Under certain conditions can be
programmed to handle peak
conditions
 Disadvantages of Pre-timed
Signals
• Do not recognize or
accommodate short-term
fluctuations in traffic demand
• Can cause excessive delay to
vehicles and pedestrians
during off-peak periods
 Traffic-actuated Signals
Through the use of vehicle
detectors and an actuated
controller unit, this type of
control assigns the right of
way on the basis of
changing traffic demand
Advantages of Traffic-actuated Signals

• Usually reduce delay (if

properly timed)
• Adaptable to short-term
fluctuations in traffic flow
• Usually increase capacity
• Effective at intersections with
3 or more phases
 Disadvantages of Traffic-actuated
Signals
 Cost -- roughly 2 to 3 times
pretimed signals
 More complicated --
increases maintenance and
inspection skills
requirements and cost
 Detectors are costly to install
Types of Traffic-actuated Signals

a. Semi-actuated control
b. Full-actuated control
 Characteristics of Semi-actuated
Signals
 Detectors on minor approaches only
 Major approach receives a minimum green
time, which extends indefinitely until interrupted
by minor phase actuation
 Minor approach receives green after actuation if
the major phase has completed its minimum
green interval.
 Minor approach minimum green interval may be
extended by additional actuations until preset
maximum is reached or a time gap in actuations
greater than the unit extensions occurs.
 Fully-Actuated Traffic Signals

This type of control is used at

the intersection of streets or
roads with relatively equal
volumes, but where the
distribution of traffic is varying
and sporadic.
 Characteristics of Fully-Actuated
Traffic Signals
 Detectors on all approaches
 Each phase has a preset initial interval which
provides starting time for standing vehicles
 Green time is extended by a preset unit
extension for each actuation after the expiration
of the initial interval provided a time gap greater
than the unit extension does not occur
 Green extension is limited by preset maximum
limit.
 Yellow and red clearance intervals are preset per
phase
 Each phase has a recall switch
Variation of Traffic Volume
Traffic flow varies
Temporally
Spatially
 Temporal Variations
Traffic flow varies over time
 within the hour
 hourly
 daily
 monthly
 yearly
 Peak Hour Factor
q60
PHF 
4.q15
where q15 = peak 15-min count
q60 = peak-hour count
Example 8.3
What is the Objective
of Signal Timing?
• to minimize conflict
points and thus
probability of crashes
• to reduce average
delay
Intersection Conflicts
How to Reduce Conflicts
How to Reduce Conflicts

The Use of Roundabout

 Definitions
A signal cycle is one
complete rotation
through all of the
indications provided
The cycle length is
the time (in
seconds) that it
takes a signal to
complete one full
cycle of indications.
A phase is that part of a cycle allocated to a
stream of traffic, or a combination of two or
more streams of traffic, having the right of
way simultaneously during one or more
intervals.

Simple 2 phase system

NEMA Phase Numbering Scheme
 Ring Diagram

(a) For Balanced Left Turn Volumes

(b) Overlapping Phases -- For Unbalanced Left-Turn Volumes

Leading and Lagging Phases

(a) Leading Left-Turn Phasing

(b) Lagging Left-Turn Phasing

 Advantages of Leading Green
• It permits higher intersection capacity on
restricted width intersection approaches
• It is easier to program in the traffic
signal controller
• It eliminates conflicts between left-turn
and opposing straight-through vehicles,
by clearing the left-turn vehicles through
the intersection first, thus reducing
congestion
 Advantages of Leading Green
• Driver reaction time is quicker
• It requires only one amber
clearance interval, since the
green phase is terminated
simultaneously for both
directions
• It is desirable where separate
left-turn lanes do not exist
 Disadvantages of Leading Green
• It creates vehicle-pedestrian conflicts
during the leading green interval
• Left turns may preempt the right-of-
way from the opposing straight-
through movements as the leading
green terminates, which may create an
accident potential
• Opposing movement makes false
starts in an attempt to move with the
leading green
 Disadvantages of Leading Green
• It may cause difficulties in timing
progressive signal systems because
straight-through traffic is released
sooner, and may arrive at the next
interconnected signalized intersection
ahead of the green indication
• It does not conform with the right-of-
way law and creates entrapment of the
left-turn vehicle when the leading
green interval expires
 Advantages of Lagging Green
• It conforms to the normal left-turn
right-of-way law, and does not
create entrapment of left-turn
vehicles
• It is closer to normal driving
behavior
• It provides for vehicle-pedestrian
separation, since pedestrians cross
at the beginning of the green phase
 Advantages of Lagging Green
• Green phase for both directions starts
simultaneously
• It allows for greater total approach capacity,
thereby reducing the time headway for
succeeding vehicles
• Left turns do not preempt right-of-way from the
opposing straight-through movement
• It cuts off only platoon stragglers from adjacent
signalized interconnected intersections
• It is desirable where a separate left-turn lane
exists
 Disadvantages of Lagging Green
• It requires two amber clearance
intervals, since the green phase is
terminated at different times for the two
directions
• It creates conflicts for opposing left
turns at the beginning of the lag
interval
• It creates an obstruction to through
movement during the green interval,
where a separate left-turn lane does not
A “protected” left turn is made without
an opposing through vehicular flow.
The signal phasing “protects” left-
turning vehicles by prohibiting the
opposing through movement.
A “permitted” left turn is made across an opposing
through vehicle flow. In such cases, the driver is
“permitted” to cross the opposing through flow, but
must select an appropriate gap in the opposing
stream through which to turn.
Protected/Permitted or
Permitted/Protected Left Turns:
More complicated signal phasing
can be designed in which left
turns (on a given approach or
approaches) have a protected turn
for part of the cycle and a
permitted turn for another part of
the cycle.
Yellow Trap
 Change Interval
Is the total length of time in
seconds of the yellow and
all-red signal indications.
This time is provided for
vehicles to clear the
intersection after the green
interval
 Change Interval
The intergreen period of a phase
consists of both the yellow (amber)
indication and the all-red indication
(if applicable).

The yellow indication serves as a warning to

drivers that another phase will soon be
receiving the right-of-way
The change interval should be long
enough to allow cars that are greater
than the stopping distance away from the
stop-bar to brake easily to a stop. The
change interval should also allow
vehicles that are already beyond the
point-of-no-return to continue through the
intersection safely.
If the change interval is too
short….
A dilemma zone is created

XS W L

Cannot stop
Cannot cross

Xc

Dilemma zone
If the change interval is too
long….
An option zone is created

XS W L

Can stop Cannot stop

Cannot cross Can cross

Xc

Option zone
 Building an analytical model
Requires an understanding of
• Discharge headway
• Lost time
• Saturation flow
• Capacity
• Through-car equivalence
• Measures of effectiveness such as delay
 Discharge Headway

    n
Headway

1 2 3 4 nth vehicle
Queued Vehicles
Lost Time, Effective Green Time, and Capacity
Critical Lane Concept
Provide time for the
highest lane flow in a
phase
Methods of Determining
Optimum Cycle Length

• Time-Budget Method
• Webster Method
 Time Budget Method
Nt L
Cdes 
Vc
1
PHF (v / c)(3600 / h)
Cdes = desirable cycle length
N = number of phases
tL = total lost time per phase
Vc = sum of critical lane volumes
PHF = peak hour factor
v/c = volume-to-capacity ratio
h = saturation headway
Through-car equivalence
• For left-turn vehicles
• For right-turn vehicles
• For trucks
Left-Turn Adjustment Factor

1
f LT 
1  PLT ( E LT  1)
Right-Turn Adjustment Factor

1
f RT 
1  PRT ( E RT  1)
Heavy Vehicle Adjustment Factor

1
f HV 
1  PHV ( E HV  1)
 Minimum Pedestrian Green Time
Before accepting signal timings as final, a check of
whether pedestrians can safely be served by the
alloted times is necessary. The minimum pedestrian
green time (Gp) required is given by:

L  N ped 
G p  3 .2    2 .7  for WE  10 ft
Sp  WE 
L
G p  3 .2   (0.27 N ped ) for WE  10 ft
Sp
 Minimum Pedestrian Green Time
Before accepting signal timings as final, a check of
whether pedestrians can safely be served by the
alloted times is necessary. The minimum pedestrian
green time (PGT) required is given by:
Dx
G p  ( 4  7) 
Sp

Gp = minimum safe time for pedestrians to cross

Dx = crossing distance
Sp = 15th percentile walking speed
 U n ifo rm D ela y
C u m u la tiv e
S lo p e = c V2
Ve h ic le s
O verflo w D ela y

V1
r g

T im e

S lo p e = v

vT S lo p e = c

cT

T
 German Practice

Left turn Protected

permitted left-turn
but must
Typical German German yield to
traffic signal) traffic oncoming
signal cycle traffic
 In a fully actuated and complicated intersection,
the number of phases can reach 16. The
intersection shown uses 12 phases. These
phases include the walk signals. Walk signals
must, of course, also be coordinated with the
traffic signals

Countdown ped
In a fully actuated and complicated
intersection, the number of phases
can reach 16. The intersection
shown uses 12 phases. These
phases include the walk signals.
Walk signals must, of course, also
be coordinated with the traffic
signals