Computer Network and

Network Design
By - Sneha Nandanwar
 Von-Neumann computer architecture

● Von-Neumann computer architecture design was proposed in 1945.

● It was later known as Von-Neumann architecture.

● There have been 2 types of Computers:

❏ Fixed Program Computers – Their function is very specific and they couldn’t be
reprogrammed, e.g. Calculators.

❏ Stored Program Computers – These can be programmed to carry out many different
tasks, applications are stored on them, hence the name.
● It is also known as ISA (Instruction set architecture) computer and is having
three basic units:

○ The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

○ The Main Memory Unit
○ The Input/Output Device Let’s consider them in detail.
1. Central Processing Unit-

● The central processing unit is defined as the it is an electric circuit used for the executing the
instruction of computer program.

● It has following major components:

1.Control Unit(CU)

2.Arithmetic and Logic Unit(ALU)

3.Variety of Registers
 Variety of Registers

● Memory Address Register (MAR): It stores the memory locations of instructions that need to
be fetched from memory or stored in memory.

● Memory Data Register (MDR): It stores instructions fetched from memory or any data that is
to be transferred to, and stored in, memory.

● Current Instruction Register (CIR): It stores the most recently fetched instructions while it is
waiting to be coded and executed.

● Instruction Buffer Register (IBR): The instruction that is not to be executed immediately is
placed in the instruction buffer register IBR.
 What is Modulation ?

● The process by which data/information is converted into electrical/digital signals for

transferring that signal over a medium is called modulation.

● It increases strength for maximum reach of the signals.

● The process of extracting information/data from the transmitted signal is called

demodulation.

● A Modem is a device that performs both modulation and demodulation processes.

 Encoding and Decoding

● Encoding and decoding are used in many forms of communications, including computing, data
communications, programming, digital electronics and human communications.

● These two processes involve changing the format of content for optimal transmission or storage.

● In computers, encoding is the process of putting a sequence of characters (letters, numbers,

punctuation, and certain symbols) in corrected form.It is used in E-mail, video encoders etc.

● Decoding is the opposite process -- the conversion of an encoded format back into the original
sequence of characters.It is used in Microprocessors, memory chips etc.
 WHAT IS A NETWORK?

● A computer network refers to a group of two or more computing devices that are
connected by a communication medium allowing the computers to communicate
electronically.

● A computing device on a network is usually referred to as a node, being connected to

one another, it allows nodes to exchange data with one another using a connection
media between them.

● The links can be established either over cable media such as wires or via a wireless
media such as Wi-Fi.
 Types of area networks

● LAN covers the smallest area, MAN covers an area larger than LAN and WAN comprises
the largest of all.

● LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal
computers and workstations can share data, tools, and programs.

● MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that covered by a LAN and a
smaller area as compared to WAN.

● WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical
area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country.
 What Is Network Hardware?

● Network hardware is defined as a set of physical or network devices that are essential for
interaction and communication between hardware units operational on a computer
network.

● Network equipment is part of advancements of the Ethernet network protocol and utilizes
a twisted pair or fiber cable as a connection medium. Routers, hubs, switches, and bridges
are some examples of network hardware.
 What is a network switch?

● A network switch connects devices within a network (often a local area network, or LAN
*) and forwards data packets to and from those devices.
● Switch only sends data to the single device it is intended for (which may be another switch
or a user's computer), not to networks of multiple devices.
Types of Switching

There are three types of switching methods:

● Message Switching
● Circuit Switching
● Packet Switching
○ Datagram Packet Switching
○ Virtual Circuit Packet Switching
 Message Switching

● In message switching, end-users communicate by sending and receiving messages

that included the entire data to be shared. Messages are the smallest individual unit.

● Also, the sender and receiver are not directly connected. There are a number of
intermediate nodes that transfer data and ensure that the message reaches its
destination.

● Message switched data networks are hence called hop-by-hop systems.

● They provide 2 distinct and important characteristics:

○ Store and forward

○ Message delivery
 Circuit Switching
● In circuit switching network resources (bandwidth) are divided into pieces and bit
delay is constant during a connection.

● The dedicated path/circuit established between sender and receiver provides a

guaranteed data rate.

● Data can be transmitted without any delays once the circuit is established.

● Telephone system network is one of the example of Circuit switching.

● TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) and FDM (Frequency Division

Multiplexing) are two methods of multiplexing multiple signals into a single
carrier.
Modems: A modem enables a computer to connect to the internet via a telephone line. The
modem at one end converts the computer’s digital signals into analog signals and sends them
through a telephone line.

Routers: A router connects two or more networks. One common use of the router is to connect
a home or office network (LAN) to the internet (WAN).
Hubs, bridges, and switches: Hubs, bridges, and switches are connecting units that allow
multiple devices to connect to the router and enable data transfer to all devices on a network.
Network cables: Cables connect different devices on a network. Today, most networks have
cables over a wireless connection.

Firewall: A firewall is a hardware or software device between a computer and the rest of the
network open to attackers or hackers.
What Is Network Software?
Network software is defined as a wide range of software that streamlines the operations, design, monitoring, and
implementation of computer networks.

Functions of network software -

● User management allows administrators to add or remove users from the network. This is particularly
useful when hiring or relieving.

● File management lets administrators decide the location of data storage and control user access to that data.

● Access enables users to enjoy uninterrupted access to network resources.

● Network security systems assist administrators in looking after security and preventing data breaches.
Components of Network Software

Tracking systems, help desk

applications, inventory management
platforms.

networking services include NTP, DNS,

DHCP, VoIP, File and Directory,
Hardware Sharing, Email, and Website
Hosting.
 Network Types

Types of Network Topology

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and
receiver is referred to as Network Topology. The various network topologies are:

● Mesh Topology
● Star Topology
● Bus Topology
● Ring Topology
● Hybrid Topology
 Mesh Topology
● In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel.
● Connection of telephone regional offices.

links
● A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where
various internet service providers are connected to each other via dedicated
channels.

● This topology is also used in military communication systems and aircraft

navigation systems.
 Star Topology
● In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
● High speed LAN

cable
● If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system
will crash down.
● The cost of installation is high.
● Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

● A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where
all computers are connected to a central hub.
● This topology is also used in wireless networks where all devices are connected to a
wireless access point.
 Bus Topology

● Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
a single cable. It is bi-directional.
● Early Ethernet
● If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
● If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha,
CSMA/CD, etc.
● Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
● Security is very low.

● A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are
connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable.
● This topology is also used in cable television networks.
 Ring Topology
● In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices.
● The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
● In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the
data.
● The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
○ Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to
another node.
○ Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

● There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just
after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the
acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
 Hybrid Topology
● Combination of two or more network topology
● A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The
network may have a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to
the backbone through a switch or router.

● Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the different
rooms and offices.

● The wireless access points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices.

● This hybrid topology allows for efficient communication between different

buildings while providing flexibility and redundancy within each building.
 Reference Models: OSI

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It was developed by ISO – ‘International
Organization for Standardization’.
Physical Layer – Layer 1
● The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.

● The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.

● When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send
them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

1. Logical Link Control (LLC)

2. Media Access Control (MAC)
Network Layer – Layer 3

● The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing.

● The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.

● Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.

● Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.

Transport Layer – Layer 4

● The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer.

● The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.

● It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message.

● Services Provided by Transport Layer

○ Connection-Oriented Service
○ Connectionless Service
Session Layer – Layer 5

● This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and
authentication, and also ensures security.
for Example:-
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger application
running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an
interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any secure data), and
converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.
Presentation Layer – Layer 6

● The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to
transmit over the network.

● Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

● Encryption/ Decryption: Signals

Application Layer – Layer 7

● At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications.

● These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.

● The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.

 The functions of the seven layers
• The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel
• The data link layer performs flow control and also transforms a raw
transmission facility into a line that appears error free (ARQ)

• The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, e.g. routing, flow control,
internetworking.

• The transport layer performs assembling and disassembling, isolates the upper layers
from the changes in the network hardware, and determines the type of services
• The session layer establishes sessions (dialog control, …)
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics
• The application layer contains a variety of commonly used protocols (e.g.
HyperText Transfer Protocol for WWW, file transfer, e-mail)
The OCI-TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP reference model

 The TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP reference model with some protocols

● The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
● The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
● The TCP/IP model consists of four layers.
● Helps establish a connection between different types of
computers.
● Works independently of the OS.
● Supports many routing protocols.
● Uses client-server architecture.
● Can be operated independently.
 Comparison of OSI & TCP/IP
● OSI has 7 layers whereas TCP/IP has 4 layers.

● The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network
communication used by systems open to interconnection and communication
with other systems. On the other hand, TCP/IP helps you to determine how a
specific computer should be connected to the internet and how you can be
transmitted between them.

● OSI header is 5 bytes whereas TCP/IP header size is 20 bytes.

● OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection whereas TCP/IP refers to

Transmission Control Protocol.
● OSI follows a vertical approach whereas TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.

● OSI model, the transport layer, is only connection-oriented whereas the TCP/IP
model is both connection-oriented and connectionless.

● OSI model is developed by ISO whereas TCP Model is developed by

ARPANET.

● OSI model helps you to standardize router, switch, motherboard, and other
hardware whereas TCP/IP helps you to establish a connection between different
types of computers.
 Connection-oriented
● Both Connection-oriented service and Connection-less service are used for the
connection establishment between two or more two devices.

● These services are offered by the network layer.

● Connection-oriented service is related to the telephone system. It includes
connection establishment and connection termination.

● In a connection-oriented service, the Handshake method is used to establish

the connection between sender and receiver.
 Connection-less Services
● Connection-less service is related to the postal system. It does not include
any connection establishment and connection termination.

● Connection-less Service does not give a guarantee of reliability. In this,

Packets do not follow the same path to reach their destination.
Question : Identify the different devices used in Network connection in
College campus.
1. Router
2. Switch
3. Access Points (APs)
4. Firewall
5. Gateway
6. Modem
7. Load Balancer
8. Network Hubs
9. Network Bridges
10. Network Security Appliances
11. Ethernet Cables and Fiber Optic Cables
12. Network Management Systems (NMS)
 Network Criteria
● A Network is a group of connected devices capable of communicating. The device can be a
computer, printer, or scanner that either receives or transmits data. The devices connected
in the Network are called "Nodes," and the means of connection can be wired or wireless.

● There are a lot of criteria that make a network better than others, but; there are three
basic yet important criteria to be fulfilled for a network:

○ Performance
○ Reliability
○ Security
Performance

● Transit time:
● Response time:
● Throughput:
● Bandwidth:
● Delay/ Latency:
Reliability

● It is the degree to which a network is trustworthy, consistent, and

dependable.
● The Reliability of a network is measured by the frequency of failures it is
undergoing and the time it takes to recover from the failures.
● Overall, the Robustness of the Network at times of catastrophic events is
measured to check how reliable the Network is.
Security

● It measures how the Network secures the data amid failures and attacks and
the policies and procedures it implements to protect itself from damages and
unauthorized access.
● In Reliability, the frequency of failures is checked.
● In Security, network attacks and data breaches are checked.
 Socket address with an example.

● A transport-layer protocol in the TCP suite needs both the IP address and the
port number, at each end, to make a connection.

● The combination of an IP address and a port number is called a socket

address.

● The client socket address defines the client process uniquely just as the
server socket address defines the server process uniquely
● To use the services of transport layer in the Internet, we need a pair of socket
addresses: the client socket address and the server socket address.

● These four pieces of information are part of the network-layer packet

header and the transport-layer packet header.

● The first header contains the IP addresses; the second header contains
the port numbers.
 Process to process delivery
● Process to process delivery (transport layer communication) needs two
identifiers, one is IP address and the other is port number at each end to
make a connection.
● Socket address is the combinations of IP address and port number as shown
in the figure.
● The client socket address defines the client process uniquely whereas the
server socket address defines the server process uniquely.
● A transport layer protocol requires the client socket address as well as the
server socket address. These two addresses contain four pieces.
● These four pieces go into the IP header and the transport layer protocol
header.
● The IP header contains the IP addresses while the UDP and TCP headers
contain the port numbers.