Physical Layer & Data Link

Layer

By - Sneha Nandanwar
 PHYSICAL LAYER
⚫ Physical layer in the OSI model plays the role of interacting with actual hardware
and signaling mechanism.
⚫ Physical layer is the only layer of OSI network model which actually deals with the
physical connectivity of two different stations.
⚫ This layer defines the hardware equipment, cabling, wiring, frequencies, pulses used
to represent binary signals etc.
⚫ Physical layer provides its services to Data-link layer. Data-link layer hands over
frames to physical layer.
⚫ Physical layer converts them to electrical pulses, which represent binary data.
⚫ The binary data is then sent over the wired or wireless media.
 GUIDED MEDIA
For any networking to be effective, raw stream of data is to be
transported from one device to other over some medium. Various
transmission media can be used for transfer of data. These
transmission media may be of two types −

⚫ Guided − In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling

system that has a fixed path. It is defined as the physical medium
through which the signals are transmitted. It is also known as
Bounded media. For example, copper wires, fibre optic wires,etc.

⚫ Unguided − In unguided media, transmitted data travels through

free space in form of electromagnetic signal. For example, radio
waves, lasers, etc.
 TWISTED PAIR CABLES
⚫ Copper wires are the most common wires used for transmitting signals because

of good performance at low costs.

⚫ They are most commonly used in telephone lines.

⚫ However, if two or more wires are lying together, they can interfere with each

other’s signals.

⚫ To reduce this electromagnetic interference, pair of copper wires are twisted

together in helical shape like a DNA molecule.

⚫ Such twisted copper wires are called twisted pair.

⚫ To reduce interference between nearby twisted pairs,

the twist rates are different for each pair.

TWISTED PAIR CABLES
 TWISTED PAIR CABLES
To counter the tendency of twisted pair cables to pick up noise signals, wires
are shielded in the following three ways −

⚫ Each twisted pair is shielded.

⚫ Set of multiple twisted pairs in the cable is shielded.

⚫ Each twisted pair and then all the pairs are shielded.

⚫ Such twisted pairs are called shielded twisted pair (STP) cables.

⚫ The wires that are not shielded but simply bundled together in a protective
sheath are called unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables. These cables can
have maximum length of 100 metres.

⚫ Shielding makes the cable bulky, so UTP are more popular than STP. UTP
cables are used as the last mile network connection in homes and offices.
 COAXIAL CABLES
⚫ Coaxial cables are copper cables with better shielding than twisted
pair cables, so that transmitted signals may travel longer distances at
higher speeds. A coaxial cable consists of these layers, starting from
the innermost −
⚫ Stiff copper wire as core
⚫ Insulating material surrounding the core
⚫ Closely woven braided mesh of conducting material
surrounding the insulator
⚫ Protective plastic sheath encasing the wire
⚫ Coaxial cables are widely used for cable TV connections and LANs.
COAXIAL CABLES
 COAXIAL CABLES
Advantages of Coaxial Cables
⚫ These are the advantages of coaxial cables −
⚫ Excellent noise immunity
⚫ Signals can travel longer distances at higher speeds, e.g. 1 to 2 Gbps
for 1 Km cable
⚫ Can be used for both analog and digital signals
⚫ Inexpensive as compared to fibre optic cables
⚫ Easy to install and maintain
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables
⚫ These are some of the disadvantages of coaxial cables −
⚫ Expensive as compared to twisted pair cables
⚫ Not compatible with twisted pair cables
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE
⚫ Thin glass or plastic threads used to transmit data using light waves are
called optical fibre. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Laser Diodes
(LDs) emit light waves at the source, which is read by a detector at the
other end.
⚫ Optical fibre cable has a bundle of such threads or fibres bundled
together in a protective covering. Each fibre is made up of these three
layers, starting with the innermost layer −
□ Core made of high quality silica glass or plastic
□ Cladding made of high quality silica glass or plastic, with a lower
refractive index than the core
□ Protective outer covering called buffer
⚫ Note that both core and cladding are made of similar material.
However, as refractive index of the cladding is lower, any stray light
wave trying to escape the core is reflected back due to total internal
reflection.
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE
Advantages of Optical Fibre
⚫ Optical fibre is fast replacing copper wires because of these advantages
that it offers −
⚫ High bandwidth
⚫ Immune to electromagnetic interference
⚫ Suitable for industrial and noisy areas
⚫ Signals carrying data can travel long distances without weakening
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre
⚫ Despite long segment lengths and high bandwidth, using optical fibre
may not be a viable option for every one due to these disadvantages −
⚫ Optical fibre cables are expensive
⚫ Sophisticated technology required for manufacturing,
installing and maintaining optical fibre cables
⚫ Light waves are unidirectional, so two frequencies are required for full
duplex transmission
 WIRELESS TRAMSIMISSION
⚫ The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible
frequencies of electromagnetic waves.
⚫ The spectrum is broken into regions/ranges and classified by
frequency and/or wavelength.
⚫ The frequency (f ) of an electromagnetic wave is a measure of
how rapidly it oscillates.
⚫ Frequency is measured in Hertz
⚫ The ES described as radio waves and micro waves are divided
into eight ranges called as bands.
 UNGUIDED MEDIA-RADIO
WAVES
⚫ Transmission of data using radio frequencies
is called radio-wave transmission.
⚫ We all are familiar with radio channels
that broadcast entertainment programs.
⚫ Radio stations transmit radio waves using transmitters, which are
received by the receiver installed in our devices.
⚫ Both transmitters and receivers use antennas to radiate or capture
radio signals.
⚫ These radio frequencies can used for direct
also be communication within the voice
allocated range.
⚫ This range is usually 10 miles.
 UNGUIDED MEDIA-RADIO
WAVES
Advantages of Radio Wave

⚫ These are some of the advantages of radio wave transmissions −

⚫ Inexpensive mode of information exchange

⚫ No land needs to be acquired for laying cables

⚫ Installation and maintenance of devices is cheap

Disadvantages of Radio Wave

⚫ These are some of the disadvantages of radio wave

transmissions

⚫ Insecure communication medium

⚫ Prone to weather changes like rain, thunderstorms, etc.

UNGUIDED
MEDIA-MICROWAVES
⚫ It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and
receiving antennas need to be properly aligned
with each other.
⚫ The distance covered by the signal is
directly proportional to the height of the
antenna.
⚫ Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz.
⚫ These are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television
distribution.
 UNGUIDED
MEDIA-MICROWAVES
Advantages Of Microwave:
⚫ Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
⚫ It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land
for the installation of cables.
⚫ Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in
terrains as the installation of cable in terrain is quite a
difficult task.
⚫ Communication over oceans can be achieved by
using microwave transmission.
 UNGUIDED
MEDIA-MICROWAVES
Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:
⚫ Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure
communication. Any malicious user can catch the signal in the
air by using its own antenna.
⚫ Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by
using microwave transmission.
⚫ Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is
susceptible to weather condition. This means that any
environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
⚫ Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the
case of microwave transmission.
 UNGUIDED MEDIA-INFRARED
WAVES
⚫ An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for
communication over short ranges.
⚫ The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
⚫ It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between
two cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a
computer and cell phone resides in the same closed area.
Characteristics Of Infrared:
⚫ It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
⚫ Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls.
Therefore, the infrared communication in one room cannot
be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
⚫ An infrared communication provides better security with
minimum interference.
⚫ Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the
sun rays will interfere with the infrared waves.
 SWITCHING
⚫ In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to
receiver. The switching technique will decide the best route for data
transmission.

⚫ Switching technique is used to connect the systems for

making one-to-one communication.

⚫ There are two types of switching techniques:

□ Circuit Switching

□ Packet Switching
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING
⚫ Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated
path between sender and receiver.
⚫ In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established
then the dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is
terminated.
⚫ Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the
telephone works. A complete end-to-end path must exist before the
communication takes place.
⚫ In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the
data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the
receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of
the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path
transfers the data.
⚫ Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for
voice transmission. Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit
switching technology.
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
⚫ In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel
is dedicated.
⚫ It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
⚫ Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the
speed of data transmission.
⚫ It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during
which no data can be transmitted.
⚫ It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated
path is required for each connection.
⚫ It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data
is transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
⚫ In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be
transferred even if the channel is free.
 PACKET SWITCHING
⚫ The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in

one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.

⚫ The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are

given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.

⚫ Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source

address, destination address and sequence number.

⚫ Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.

⚫ All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

⚫ If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to

resend the message. If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the

acknowledgment message will be sent.

 PACKET SWITCHING
There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

⚫ It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a

datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the

information about the destination and switch uses this information to

forward the packet to the correct destination.

⚫ The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

⚫ In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.

⚫ Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.

⚫ Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

 PACKET SWITCHING
Virtual Circuit Switching

⚫ Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as

connection-oriented switching.

⚫ In the case of Virtual circuit switching,

a preplanned route is established before the messages
are sent.

⚫ Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection
between sender and receiver.

⚫ In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
 DATA LINK LAYER
⚫ In the OSI model, the data link layer is a 4th layer from the top and

2nd layer from the bottom.

⚫ The communication channel that connects the adjacent nodes is known

as links, and in order to move the datagram from source to the

destination, the datagram must be moved across an individual link.

⚫ The main responsibility of the Data Link Layer is to transfer the

datagram across an individual link.

⚫ The Data link layer protocol defines the format of the packet

exchanged across the nodes as well as the actions such as Error

detection, retransmission, flow control, and random access.

 DATA LINK LAYER
SERVICES-FRAMING
⚫ Framing is a point-to-point connection between two computers
or devices consists of a wire in which data is transmitted as a
stream of bits.
⚫ However, these bits must be framed into discernible blocks of
information.
⚫ Framing is a function of the data link layer.
⚫ It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are
meaningful to the receiver.
⚫ A Frame consists of Header, Trailer and Payload.
 TYPES OF FRAMING
1. Fixed size – The frame is of fixed size and there is no need to
provide boundaries to the frame, length of the frame itself acts as
delimiter.
⚫ Drawback: It suffers from internal fragmentation if data size is
less than frame size
⚫ Solution: Padding
 TYPES OF FRAMING
2. Variable size – In this there is need to define end of frame as well as beginning of
next

frame to distinguish. This can be done in two ways:

⚫ Length field – We can introduce a length field in the frame to indicate the length of the

frame. Used in Ethernet(802.3). The problem with this is that sometimes the length field

might get corrupted.

⚫ End Delimeter (ED) – We can introduce an ED(pattern) to indicate the end of the frame.

Used in Token Ring. The problem with this is that ED can occur in the data. This can be

solved by:

1. Character/Byte Stuffing: Used when frames consist of character. If data contains ED

then, byte is stuffed into data to diffentiate it from ED. Let ED = “$” –> if data contains

‘$’ anywhere, it can be escaped using ‘\O’ character.

 TYPES OF FRAMING
⚫ 2. Bit Stuffing: Let ED = 01111 and if data = 01111
–> Sender stuffs a bit to break the pattern i.e. here appends a 0
in data = 011101.
–> Receiver receives the frame.
–> If data contains 011101, receiver removes the 0 and reads the
data.
 ERROR CONTROL
⚫ Data Link Layer provides a reliable delivery service, i.e.,
transmits the network layer datagram without any error.
⚫ A reliable delivery service is accomplished with
transmissions and acknowledgements.
⚫ A data link layer mainly provides the reliable delivery service
over the links as they have higher error rates and they can be
corrected locally, link at which an error occurs rather than
forcing to retransmit the data.
⚫ Errors can be introduced by signal attenuation and noise.
⚫ Data Link Layer protocol provides a mechanism to detect one or
more errors.
⚫ This is achieved by adding error detection bits in the frame and
then receiving node can perform an error check.
 FLOW CONTROL
⚫ Flow control is a technique that allows two stations working at
different speeds to communicate with each other.
⚫ It is a set of measures taken to regulate the amount of data that a
sender sends so that a fast sender does not overwhelm a slow
receiver.
⚫ A receiving node can receive the frames at a faster rate than it
can process the frame.
⚫ Without flow control, the receiver's buffer can overflow, and
frames can get lost.
⚫ To overcome this problem, the data link layer uses the flow
control to prevent the sending node on one side of the link from
overwhelming the receiving node on another side of the link.
 FLOW CONTROL
Flow control can be broadly classified into two categories:
⚫ Feedback based Flow Control In these protocols, the sender sends
frames after it has received acknowledgments from the user. This is
used in the data link layer.
⚫ Rate based Flow Control These protocols have built in mechanisms
to restrict the rate of transmission of data without requiring
acknowledgment from the receiver. This is used in the network layer
and the transport layer.
Different mechanisms like Sliding Window, Stop and Wait etc are used
for flow control.
 DATA LINK LAYER PROTOCOLS
SIMPLE PROTOCOL:
⚫ The simple protocol has no flow control or error control.
⚫ It assumes that the receiver can handle any frame it receives.

STOP & WAIT PROTOCOL:Here stop and wait means, whatever the
data that sender wants to send, he sends the data to the receiver.
⚫ After sending the data, he stops and waits until he receives the
acknowledgment from the receiver.
⚫ The stop and wait protocol is a flow control protocol where flow
control is one of the services of the data link layer.
It is a layer protocol which is used for transmitting the data over the
noiseless channels. It provides unidirectional data transmission which means
that either sending or receiving of data will take place at a time. It provides
flow-control mechanism but does not provide any error control mechanism.
SLIDING WINDOW-Go back-N ARQ
⚫ Go – Back – N ARQ provides for sending multiple frames before
receiving the acknowledgment for the first frame. The frames
are sequentially numbered and a finite number of frames. The
maximum number of frames that can be sent depends upon the
size of the sending window. If the acknowledgment of a frame is
not received within an agreed upon time period, all frames
starting from that frame are retransmitted.
⚫ The size of the sending window determines the sequence number
of the outbound frames. If the sequence number of the frames is
an n-bit field, then the range of sequence numbers that can be
assigned is 0 to 2n−1. Consequently, the size of the sending
window is 2n−1. Thus in order to accommodate a sending
window size of 2n−1, a n-bit sequence number is chosen.
 SELCETIVE REPEAT
⚫ The go-back-n protocol works well if errors are less, but if the line is poor
it wastes a lot of bandwidth on retransmitted frames. An alternative
strategy, the selective repeat protocol, is to allow the receiver to accept and
buffer the frames following a damaged or lost one.
⚫ Selective Repeat protocol provides for sending multiple frames depending
upon the availability of frames in the sending window, even if it does not
receive acknowledgement for any frame in the interim. The maximum
number of frames that can be sent depends upon the size of the sending
window.
⚫ The receiver records the sequence number of the earliest incorrect or un-
received frame. It then fills the receiving window with the subsequent
frames that it has received. It sends the sequence number of the missing
frame along with every acknowledgement frame.
⚫ The sender continues to send frames that are in its sending window. Once,
it has sent all the frames in the window, it retransmits the frame whose
sequence number is given by the acknowledgements. It then continues
sending the other frames.
 ERROR CORRECTION &
DETECTION
⚫ There are many reasons such as noise, cross-talk etc., which may help
data to get corrupted during transmission.
⚫ The upper layers work on some generalized
view of network architecture and are not aware of actual
hardware data processing.
⚫ Hence, the upper layers expect error-free
transmission between the systems.
⚫ Most of the applications would not function expectedly if they receive
erroneous data.
⚫ Applications such as voice and video may not be that affected and with
some errors they may still function well.
⚫ Data-link layer uses some error control
mechanism to ensure that frames (data bit streams) are
transmitted with certain level of accuracy.
⚫ But to understand how errors is controlled, it is essential to know what
types of errors may occur.
 ERROR CORRECTION &
DETECTION
⚫ A condition when the receiver’s information does not match
with the sender’s information.
⚫ During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can
introduce errors in the binary bits travelling from sender to
receiver. That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may
change to 0.
⚫ Error control mechanism may involve two possible ways:
⚫ Error Detection- Errors in the received frames are detected by
means of Parity Check and Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). In
both cases, few extra bits are sent along with actual data to
confirm that bits received at other end are same as they were
sent. If the counter-check at receiver’ end fails, the bits are
considered corrupted.
⚫ Error Correction
 ERROR DETECTION
PARITY CHECKS
⚫ Blocks of data from the source are subjected to a check bit or
parity bit generator form, where a parity of :
⚫ 1 is added to the block if it contains odd number of 1’s, and

⚫ 0 is added if it contains even number of 1’s

⚫ This scheme makes the total number of 1’s even, that is why it is
called even parity checking.
⚫ You can also go for odd parity.
 ERROR DETECTION
CHECKSUM
⚫ In checksum error detection scheme, the data is divided into k
segments each of m bits.
⚫ In the sender’s end the segments are added using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is complemented to get the
checksum.
⚫ The checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.
⚫ At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added using 1’s
complement arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is
complemented.
⚫ If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise
discarded.
 ERROR DETECTION
CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK
⚫ Unlike checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is
based on binary division.
⚫ In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy
check bits, are appended to the end of data unit so that the
resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a second,
predetermined binary number.
⚫ At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same
number. If at this step there is no remainder, the data unit is
assumed to be correct and is therefore accepted.
⚫ A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in
transit and therefore must be rejected.
 ERROR DETECTION
HAMMING CODE

⚫ Hamming code is a block code that

is capable of detecting up to two simultaneous

bit errors and correcting single-bit errors. It was developed by

R.W. Hamming for error correction.

⚫ In this coding method, the source encodes the message by inserting redundant

bits within the message.

⚫ These redundant bits are extra bits that are generated and inserted at specific

positions in the message itself to enable error detection and correction.

⚫ When the destination receives this message, it performs recalculations to detect

errors and find the bit position that has error.

 ERROR DETECTION-Hamming
Code
⚫ Encoding a message by Hamming Code
⚫ The procedure used by the sender to
encode the message encompasses the following steps −
Step 1 − Calculation of the number of redundant bits.
Step 2 − Positioning the redundant bits.
Step 3 − Calculating the values of each redundant bit.
⚫ Once the redundant bits are embedded within the message, this is
sent to the user.
 ERROR DETECTION-Hamming
Code
Step 1 − Calculation of the number of redundant bits.
⚫ If the message contains m𝑚number of data bits, r𝑟number
of redundant bits are added to it so that m𝑟 is able to
indicate at least (m + r+ 1) different states.
⚫ Here, (m + r) indicates location of an error in each of (𝑚 +
𝑟) bit positions and one additional state indicates no error.
⚫ Since, r𝑟 bits can indicate 2r𝑟 states, 2r𝑟 must be at least
equal to (m + r + 1). Thus the following equation should
hold 2r ≥ m+r+1
 ERROR DETECTION-Hamming
Code
Step 2 − Positioning the redundant bits.
⚫ The r redundant bits placed at bit positions of powers of 2, i.e. 1, 2,
4, 8, 16 etc. They are referred in the rest of this text as r1 (at position
1), r2 (at position 2), r3 (at position 4), r4 (at position 8) and so on.
Step 3 − Calculating the values of each redundant bit.
⚫ The redundant bits are parity bits. A parity bit is an extra bit that
makes the number of 1s either even or odd. The two types of parity
are −Even Parity,Odd Parity.
⚫ Each redundant bit, ri, is calculated as the parity, generally even
parity, based upon its bit position. It covers all bit positions whose
binary representation includes a 1 in the i th position except the
position of ri
 ERROR DETECTION-Hamming
Code
Decoding a message in Hamming Code
⚫ Once the receiver gets an incoming message, it
performs recalculations to detect errors and correct
them. The steps for recalculation are −
⚫ Step 1 − Calculation of the number of redundant bits.
⚫ Step 2 − Positioning the redundant bits.
⚫ Step 3 − Parity checking.
⚫ Step 4 − Error detection and correction
 High-Level Data Link Control
(HDLC)
⚫ High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) basically
provides reliable delivery of data frames over a
network or communication link.
⚫ HDLC provides various operations such as framing,
data transparency, error detection, and correction, and
even flow control.
⚫ Primary stations simply transmit commands that
contain address of secondary stations.
⚫ The secondary station then simply transmits responses
that contain its own address.
 High-Level Data Link Control
(HDLC)
TRANSFER MODES

⚫ HDLC supports two types of transfer modes, normal response mode

and asynchronous balanced mode.

⚫ Normal Response Mode (NRM) − Here, two types of stations are

there, a primary station that send commands and secondary station
that can respond to received commands. It is used for both point - to
- point and multipoint communications.

⚫ Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) − Here, the configuration

is balanced, i.e. each station can both send commands and respond
to commands. It is used for only point - to - point communications.
 HDLC FRAME
⚫ HDLC Frame
⚫ HDLC is a bit - oriented protocol where each frame contains up to six
fields. The structure varies according to the type of frame. The fields of a
HDLC frame are −
⚫ Flag − It is an 8-bit sequence that marks the beginning and the end of the
frame. The bit pattern of the flag is 01111110.
⚫ Address − It contains the address of the receiver. If the frame is sent by
the primary station, it contains the address(es) of the secondary
station(s). If it is sent by the secondary station, it contains the address of
the primary station. The address field may be from 1 byte to several
bytes.
⚫ Control − It is 1 or 2 bytes containing flow and error control information.
⚫ Payload − This carries the data from the network layer. Its length may
vary from one network to another.
⚫ FCS − It is a 2 byte or 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection.
The standard code used is CRC (cyclic redundancy code)
 HDLC FRAME
⚫ Types of HDLC Frames
⚫ There are three types of HDLC frames. The type of frame is
determined by the control field of the frame −
⚫ I-frame − I-frames or Information frames carry user data from the
network layer. They also include flow and error control information
that is piggybacked on user data. The first bit of control field of I-
frame is 0.
⚫ S-frame − S-frames or Supervisory frames do not contain
information field. They are used for flow and error control when
piggybacking is not required. The first two bits of control field of
S-frame is 10.
⚫ U-frame − U-frames or Un-numbered frames are used for myriad
miscellaneous functions, like link management. It may contain an
information field, if required. The first two bits of control field of
U-frame is 11.
 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL
⚫ Multiple Access Control – If there is a dedicated link
between the sender and the receiver then data link control layer is
sufficient, however if there is no dedicated link present then multiple
stations can access the channel simultaneously.
⚫ Hence multiple access protocols are required to decrease collision and
avoid crosstalk. For example, in a classroom full of students, when a
teacher asks a question and all the students (or stations) start answering
simultaneously (send data at same time) then a lot of chaos is
created( data overlap or data lost) then it is the job of the teacher
(multiple access protocols) to manage the students and make them
answer one at a time.
⚫ Thus, protocols are required for sharing data on non dedicated
channels. Multiple access protocols can be subdivided further as –
□ Random Access Protocols
□ Controlled Access Protocols
□ Channelization Access Protocols
 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL
1. Random Access Protocol: In this, all stations have same
superiority that is no station has more priority than another
station. Any station can send data depending on medium’s
state( idle or busy). It has two features:
⚫ There is no fixed time for sending data
⚫ There is no fixed sequence of stations sending data
⚫ The Random access protocols are further subdivided as:
⚫ (a) ALOHA – It was designed for wireless LAN but is also
applicable for shared medium. In this, multiple stations can
transmit data at the same time and can hence lead to collision and
data being garbled.
 ALOHA
⚫ Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA both are the
Random Access Protocols, that are implemented on the
Medium Access Control (MAC) layer, a sublayer of
Data Link Layer.
⚫ The purpose of the ALOHA protocol is to determine
that which competing station must get the next
chance of accessing the multi-access channel at
MAC layer.
 PURE ALOHA
⚫ It allows the stations to transmit data at any time whenever they want.
⚫After transmitting the data packet, station waits for some time.
then, following 2 cases are possible-
Case-01:
⚫ Transmitting station receives an acknowledgement from the receiving
station.
⚫ In this case, transmitting station assumes that the transmission is successful.
Case-02:
⚫ Transmitting station does not receive any acknowledgement within
specified time from the receiving station.
⚫In this case, transmitting station assumes that the transmission is unsuccessful.
Then,
⚫ Transmitting station uses a Back Off Strategy and waits for some
random amount of time.
⚫ After back off time, it transmits the data packet again.
⚫ It keeps trying until the back off limit is reached after which it aborts
 PURE ALOHA
⚫ Efficiency of Pure Aloha (η) = G x e-2G
where G = Number of stations willing to transmit data
For maximum efficiency,
⚫ We put dη / dG = 0
⚫ Maximum value of η occurs at G = 1/2
⚫ Substituting G = 1/2 in the above expression, we get-
⚫ Maximum efficiency of Pure Aloha== 1/2 x e-2 x 1/2
⚫ = 1 / 2e
⚫ = 0.184
⚫ = 18.4%
 SLOTTED ALOHA
⚫ Slotted Aloha divides the time of shared channel into
discrete intervals called as time slots.
⚫ Any station can transmit its data in any time slot.
⚫ The only condition is that station must start its
transmission from the beginning of the time
slot.
⚫ If the beginning of the slot is missed, then station
has to wait until the beginning of the next time slot.
⚫ A collision may occur if two or more stations try to
transmit data at the beginning of the same time
slot.
 SLOTTED ALOHA
⚫ Efficiency of Slotted Aloha (η) = G x e-G
where G = Number of stations willing to transmit data at the
beginning of the same time slot
Maximum Efficiency-
⚫ For maximum efficiency,
⚫ We put dη / dG = 0
⚫ Maximum value of η occurs at G = 1
⚫ Substituting G = 1 in the above expression, we get-
⚫ Maximum efficiency of Slotted Aloha
⚫ = 1 x e-1
⚫ =1/e
⚫ = 0.368
⚫ = 36.8%
 CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access)
⚫ It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access
protocol to sense the traffic on a channel (idle or busy) before
transmitting the data. It means that if the channel is idle, the
station can send data to the channel. Otherwise, it must wait
until the channel becomes idle. Hence, it reduces the chances of
a collision on a transmission medium.
⚫ CSMA Access Modes
⚫ 1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines
each node, first sense the shared channel and if the channel is
idle, it immediately sends the data. Else it must wait and
keep track of the status of the channel to be idle and
broadcast the frame unconditionally as soon as the channel
is idle.
 CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access)
⚫ Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines
before transmitting the data, each node must sense the
channel, and if the channel is inactive, it immediately sends
the data. Otherwise, the station must wait for a random time
(not continuously), and when the channel is found to be idle,
it transmits the frames.
⚫ P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and
Non-persistent modes. The P-Persistent mode defines that each
node senses the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it sends
a frame with a P probability. If the data is not transmitted, it
waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random time and resumes the
frame with the next time slot.
 CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access)
CSMA/ CD
⚫ It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network protocol to
transmit data frames. The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access
control layer. Therefore, it first senses the shared channel before broadcasting
the frames, and if the channel is idle, it transmits a frame to check whether the
transmission was successful. If the frame is successfully received, the station
sends another frame. If any collision is detected in the CSMA/CD, the station
sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared channel to terminate data transmission.
After that, it waits for a random time before sending a frame to a channel.
CSMA/ CA
⚫ It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol for
carrier transmission of data frames. It is a protocol that works with a medium
access control layer. When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives an
acknowledgment to check whether the channel is clear. If the station receives
only a single (own) acknowledgments, that means the data frame has been
successfully transmitted to the receiver. But if it gets two signals (its own and
one more in which the collision of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in
the shared channel. Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives
an acknowledgment signal.
 CONTROLLED ACCESS
Controlled Access Protocol
⚫ It is a method of reducing data frame collision on a
shared channel. In the controlled access method, each
station interacts and decides to send a data frame by
a particular station approved by all other stations.
⚫ It means that a single station cannot send the data
frames unless all other stations are not approved. It
has three types of controlled access: Reservation,
Polling, and Token Passing.
 CHANNELIZATION PROTOCOLS
⚫ It is a channelization protocol that allows the total
usable bandwidth in a shared channel to be shared
across multiple stations based on their time,
distance and codes. It can access all the stations at
the same time to send the data frames to the
channel.
⚫ Following are the various methods to access the
channel based on their time, distance and
codes:
⚫ FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
⚫ TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
⚫ CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
 ETHERNET
⚫ Ethernet is primarily a standard communication protocol used
to create local area networks.
⚫ It transmits and receives data through cables.
⚫ This facilitates network communication between two or more
different types of network cables such as from copper to fiber
optic and vice versa.
⚫ Ethernet network is used to create local area network and
connect multiple computers or other devices such as printers,
scanners, and so on.
⚫ In a wired network, this is done with the help of fiber optic
cables, while in a wireless network, it is done through wireless
network technology.
⚫ An Ethernet network uses various topologies such as star, bus,
ring, and more.
 ETHERNET
Ethernet may be either a wired or wireless network. In a wired
network, various types of cables are used. Here are some widely used
Ethernet cables:
⚫ 10Base2: This is a thin twisted pair coaxial cable.
⚫ 10Base5: This is thick twisted pair coaxial cables.
⚫ 10Base T: This is a twisted pair cable which offers a speed of around
10 Mbps.
⚫ 100BaseTX: This is a twisted pair cable and offer a speed of 100
Mbps.
⚫ 100Base FX: Fiber optic protocol which offers a speed of 100 Mbps.
⚫ 1000Base SX: Fiber optic protocol which utilizes a wavelength of
850nm for multimode networks.
⚫ 1000Base LX: Fiber optic protocol which utilizes a wavelength of
1310 nm, for multimode networks and up to 1550nm for singlemode
networks.
 ETHERNET
Advantages- relatively low cost;
⚫ backward compatibility;
⚫ generally resistant to noise;
⚫ good data transfer quality;
⚫ reliability; and data security
Disadvantages
⚫ It is intended for smaller, shorter distance networks.
⚫ Mobility is limited.
⚫ Use of longer cables can create crosstalk.
⚫ It does not work well with real-time or interactive applications.
⚫ Increased traffic makes the Ethernet speed go down.
⚫ Receivers do not acknowledge the reception of data packets.
⚫ When troubleshooting, it is hard to trace which specific cable or node
is causing the issue
 TYPES OF ETHERNET
⚫ STANDARD ETHERENT: A standard Ethernet network can transmit data at
a rate up to 10 Megabits per second (10 Mbps). Other LAN types include
Token Ring, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Gigabit Ethernet, Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and
LocalTalk. A typical Ethernet Frame consist of:
⚫ PREAMBLE – Ethernet frame starts with 7-Bytes Preamble. This is a pattern
of alternative 0’s and 1’s which indicates starting of the frame and allow
sender and receiver to establish bit synchronization. Initially, PRE (Preamble)
was introduced to allow for the loss of a few bits due to signal delays.
⚫ Start of frame delimiter (SFD) – This is a 1-Byte field which is always set to
10101011. SFD indicates that upcoming bits are starting of the frame, which is
the destination address. Sometimes SFD is considered the part of PRE, this is
the reason Preamble is described as 8 Bytes in many places. The SFD warns
station or stations that this is the last chance for synchronization.
⚫ generated over the Destination Address, Source Address, Length, and Data
field. If the checksum computed by destination is not the same as sent
checksum value, data received is corrupted.
 STANDARD ETHERNET
⚫ Destination Address – This is 6-Byte field which contains the MAC
address of machine for which data is destined.
⚫ Source Address – This is a 6-Byte field which contains the MAC
address of source machine. As Source Address is always an individual
address (Unicast), the least significant bit of first byte is always 0.
⚫ Length – Length is a 2-Byte field, which indicates the length of entire
Ethernet frame. This 16-bit field can hold the length value between 0 to
65534, but length cannot be larger than 1500 because of some own
limitations of Ethernet.
⚫ Data – This is the place where actual data is inserted, also known as
Payload. Both IP header and data will be inserted here if Internet
Protocol is used over Ethernet. The maximum data present may be as
long as 1500 Bytes. In case data length is less than minimum length i.e.
46 bytes, then padding 0’s is added to meet the minimum possible
length.
⚫ Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) – CRC is 4 Byte field. This field
contains a 32-bits hash code of data, which is
 FAST ETHERNET
⚫ Fast Ethernet is a variation of Ethernet standards that carry data
traffic at 100 Mbps (Mega bits per second) in local area networks
(LAN). It was launched as the IEEE 802.3u standard in 1995, and
stayed the fastest network till the introduction of Gigabit Ethernet.

⚫ Fast Ethernet is popularly named as 100-BASE-X. Here, 100 is the

maximum throughput, i.e. 100 Mbps, BASE denoted use of
baseband transmission, and X is the type of medium used, which is
TX or FX.

⚫ The common varieties of fast Ethernet are 100-Base-

TX, 100-BASE-FX and 100-Base-T4.
 FAST ETHERNET
100-Base-T4
⚫ This has four pairs of UTP of Category 3, two of which
are bi-directional and the other two are unidirectional.
⚫ In each direction, three pairs can be used simultaneously for
data transmission.
⚫ Each twisted pair is capable of transmitting a maximum of
25Mbaud data. Thus the three pairs can handle a maximum
of 75Mbaud data.
⚫ It uses the encoding scheme 8B/6T (eight binary/six ternary).
100-Base-TX
⚫ This has either two pairs of unshielded twisted pairs (UTP)
category 5 wires or two shielded twisted pairs (STP) type 1
wires. One pair transmits frames from hub to the device and the
other from device to hub.
⚫ Maximum distance between hub and station is 100m.
⚫ It has a data rate of 125 Mbps.
⚫ It uses MLT-3 encoding scheme along with 4B/5B block coding.
 FAST ETHERNET
100-BASE-FX
⚫ This has two pairs of optical fibers. One pair transmits
frames from hub to the device and the other from
device to hub.
⚫ Maximum distance between hub and station is 2000m.
⚫ It has a data rate of 125 Mbps.
⚫ It uses NRZ-I encoding scheme along with 4B/5B
block coding.
 GIGABIT ETHERNET
⚫ Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) is the family of Ethernet technologies
that achieve theoretical data rates of 1 gigabit per second (1
Gbps). It was introduced in 1999 and was defined by the IEEE
802.3ab standard.
⚫ The popular varieties of fast Ethernet are 1000Base-
SX, 1000Base-LX, 1000BASE-T and 1000Base-CX.
1000BASE-CX
⚫ Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard
⚫ The initial standard for Gigabit Ethernet
⚫ Uses shielded twisted pair cables with DE-9 or 8P8C connector
⚫ Maximum segment length is 25 metres
⚫ Uses NRZ line encoding and 8B/6B block encoding
 GIGABIT ETHERNET
1000BASE-SX
⚫ Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard
⚫ Uses a pair of fibre optic cables of a shorter wavelength having 770
– 860 nm diameter
⚫ The maximum segment length varies from 220 – 550
metres depending upon the fiber properties.
⚫ Uses NRZ line encoding and 8B/10B block encoding
1000BASE-LX
⚫ Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard
⚫ Uses a pair of fibre optic cables of a longer wavelength having
1270
– 1355 nm diameter
⚫ Maximum segment length is 500 metres
⚫ Can cover distances up to 5 km
 GIGABIT ETHERNET
1000BASE-T
⚫ Defined by IEEE 802.3ab standard
⚫ Uses a pair four lanes of twisted-pair cables (Cat-
5, Cat-5e, Cat-6, Cat‑7)
⚫ Maximum segment length is 100 metres
⚫ Uses trellis code modulation technique
 10 GIGABIT ETHERNET
⚫ In computer networks, 10-Gigabit Ethernet is the family of Ethernet
technologies that achieve maximum rates up to 10 gigabits per
second (10 Gbps). It is also known as 10GE, 10GbE or 10 GigE. It
is defined by the IEEE 802.3ae-2002 standard.
⚫ 10GE is a thousand times faster than standard Ethernet and supports
only full-duplex communication. Multimode fiber having 0.85μ
frequency is used for medium distances and single-mode fiber
having 1.5μ frequency is used for long distances.
⚫ The popular varieties of fast Ethernet are:
10GBase-SR
⚫ Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard
⚫ Uses fiber optic cables
⚫ Maximum segment length is 300 m
⚫ Deployed using multimode fibers having 0.85μ frequency
 10 GIGABIT ETHERNET
10GBase-LR
⚫ Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard
⚫ Uses fiber optic cables
⚫ Maximum segment length is 10 km
⚫ Deployed using single-mode fibers having 1.3μ frequency
10GBase-ER
⚫ Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard
⚫ Uses fiber optic cables
⚫ Maximum segment length is 40 km
⚫ Deployed using single-mode fibers having 1.5μ frequency
 10 GIGABIT ETHERNET
10GBase-CX4
⚫ Defined by IEEE 802.3ak standard
⚫ Uses 4 pairs of twin-axial cables
⚫ Maximum segment length is 15 m
⚫ Uses 8B/10B coding
10GBase-T
⚫ Defined by IEEE 802.3an standard
⚫ Uses 4 pairs of unshielded twisted pair cables
⚫ Maximum segment length is 100 m
⚫ Uses low-density parity-check code (LPDC
code)
THANK YOU