UNIT-2-MAGNETOSTATICS

• Magnetostatics:
• Biot-Savart’s Law,
• Ampere’s Circuit Law,
• Applications of Ampere’s Circuit Law,
• Magnetic Flux Density,
• Maxwell’s two Equations for Magnetostatic Fields,
• Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials.
• Force due to Magnetic Field,
• Magnetic Energy Density and
• Concept of Inductance.
 MAGNETOSTATICS
• Maxwell’s Equations:
• Faraday’s Law,
• Continuity Equation,
• Inconsistency of Amperes Law,
• Differential and Integral Form of Four Maxwell’s Equations,
• Boundary Conditions.
Bio-Savart’s Law
 Biot–Savart’s law states that the differential magnetic field intensity dH produced at a point P by the differential
current element I dl is proportional to the product I dl and the sine of the angle a between the element and the line
joining P to the element and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between P and the element.
 Determine the field due to a straight current carrying filamentary conductor of finite length AB

 conductor is along the z-axis with its upper and lower ends, respectively,
subtending angles α 2 and α 1 at P, the point at which H is to be determined
 If we consider the contribution dH at P due to an element dl at (0, 0, z)
 The magnetic field intensity dH at point P(0, 0, h) contributed by current element I dl is given by Biot–Savart’s law:
AMPÈRE’S CIRCUIT LAW—MAXWELL’S EQUATION
 Ampère’s circuit law states that the line integral of H around a closed path is the same as the net current I enc
enclosed by the path.

 Ampère’s law is similar to Gauss’s law, since Ampère’s law is easily applied to determine H when the
current distribution is symmetrical .
 we can use the equation to determine H only when a symmetrical current distribution exists.
 Ampère’s law is a special case of Biot–Savart’s law; the former may be derived from the latter.
By applying Stokes’s theorem to the left-hand side

 This is the third Maxwell’s equation to be derived; it is essentially Ampère’s law in differential (or point) form, is
the integral form. we should observe that that is, a magnetostatic field is not conservative
APPLICATIONS OF AMPÈRE’S LAW

 We now apply Ampère’s circuit law to determine H for some symmetrical current distributions as we did for
Gauss’s law.
 We will consider an infinite line current, an infinite sheet of current, and an infinitely long coaxial transmission
line.

Infinite Line Current

 Consider an infinitely long filamentary current I along the z-axis.
 To determine H at an observation point P, we allow a closed path to pass through P.
 This path, on which Ampère’s law is to be applied, is known as an Amperian path (analogous to the term “Gaussian surface”)
 We choose a concentric circle as the Amperian path , H is constant provided r is constant.
 Since this path encloses the whole current I, according to Ampère’s law
Infinite Sheet of Current
 Consider an infinite current sheet in the z = 0 plane. If the sheet has a uniform current density K = Ky.ay A/m.
 applying Ampère’s law to the rectangular closed path 1-2-3-4-1 (Amperian path) gives

 To achieve this, we regard the infinite sheet as comprising filaments; dH above or below the sheet due to a pair of
filamentary currents, the resultant dH has only an x-component, Also, H on one side of the sheet is the negative of
that on the other side. Owing to the infinite extent of the sheet, the sheet can be
 regarded as consisting of such filamentary pairs so that the characteristics of H for a
pair are the same for the infinite current sheet, that is,

 where Ho is yet to be determined. Evaluating the line integral of H in eq.

(7.21a) along the closed path gives

 where an is a unit normal vector directed from the current sheet to the point of interest
Infinitely Long Coaxial Transmission Line

 Consider an infinitely long transmission line consisting of two concentric

cylinders having their axes along the z-axis.
 The cross section of the line is shown in Figure , where the z-axis is out of the
page.
 The inner conductor has radius a and carries current I, while the outer
conductor has inner radius b and thickness t and carries return current I.
 We want to determine H everywhere, assuming that current is uniformly
distributed in both conductors.
 Since the current distribution is symmetrical

Since the current is uniformly distributed over the cross section

 since the whole current I is enclosed by L2.
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY—MAXWELL’S EQUATION
 The magnetic flux density B is similar to the electric flux density D. As D = ƐE in free space, the magnetic flux density
B is related to the magnetic field intensity H according to
permeability of free space

 The precise definition of the magnetic flux density B, in terms of the magnetic force, will be given as

 The magnetic flux through a surface S is given by

 In an electrostatic field, the flux passing through a closed surface is the same as the charge enclosed; that
is, ψ=∫D .dS = Q. Thus it is possible to have an isolated electric charge.
 which also reveals that electric flux lines are not necessarily closed.
 Unlike electric flux lines, magnetic flux lines always close upon themselves .
 This is because it is not possible to have isolated magnetic poles (or magnetic charges).
 For example, if we desire to have an isolated magnetic pole by dividing a magnetic bar successively into
two, we end up with pieces each having north and south poles
 • Thus the total flux through a closed surface in a magnetic field must be zero; that is

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS FOR STATIC FIELDS

MAGNETIC SCALAR AND VECTOR POTENTIALS

 We recall that some electrostatic field problems were simplified by relating the electric potential V to the
electric field intensity E(E=-Del V).
 Similarly, we can define a potential associated with magnetostatic field B. In fact, the magnetic potential could
be scalar Vm or vector A.
 To define Vm and A involves recalling two important identities

We know that for a magnetostatic field,

we can define the magnetic vector potential A (in Wb/m) such that
FORCES DUE TO MAGNETIC FIELDS
 There are at least three ways in which force due to magnetic fields can be experienced. The force can be
 (a) due to a moving charged particle in a B field,
 (b) on a current element in an external B field, or
 (c) between two current elements.

Force on a Charged Particle

 The electric force Fe on a stationary or moving electric charge Q in an electric field is given by Coulomb’s
experimental law and is related to the electric field intensity E as
 Fe = QE.
• A magnetic field can exert force only on a moving charge. From experiments, it is found that the
magnetic force Fm experienced by a charge Q moving with a velocity u in a magnetic field B is

This clearly shows that Fm is perpendicular to both u and B

 A comparison between the electric force Fe and the magnetic force Fm can be made.
 We see that Fe is independent of the velocity of the charge and can perform work on the charge and change its
kinetic energy.
 Unlike Fe, Fm depends on the charge velocity and is normal to it.
 However, Fm cannot perform work because it is at right angles to the direction of motion of the charge ; it
does not cause an increase in kinetic energy of the charge.
 The magnitude of Fm is generally small in comparison to Fe except at high velocities. For a moving charge Q in the
presence of both electric and magnetic fields, the total force on the charge is given by,

 This is known as the Lorentz force equation.

 It relates mechanical force to electrical force.
 If the mass of the charged particle moving in E and B fields is m, by Newton’s second law of motion.

 The solution to this equation is important in determining the motion of charged particles in E and B fields.
 We should bear in mind that in such fields, energy can be transferred only by means of the electric field
Force on a Current Element
 To determine the force on a current element I dl of a current-carrying conductor due to the magnetic field B, for
convection current

 we recall the relationship between current elements:

I dl = K dS = J dv

 This shows that an elemental charge dQ moving with velocity u (thereby producing convection current
element dQ u) is equivalent to a conduction current element I dl.
 Thus the force on a current element I dl in a magnetic field B

 If the current I is through a closed path L or circuit, the force on the circuit is given by
  The magnetic field produced by the current element I dl does not exert force on the element itself, just as a point
charge does not exert force on itself.
 The B field that exerts force on I dl must be due to another element.

 The magnetic field B is defined as the force per unit current element

Force between Two Current Elements

 Let us now consider the force between two elements I1 dl1 and I2 dl2.
 According to Biot– Savart’s law, both current elements produce magnetic fields.
 So we may find the force d(dF1) on element I1 dl1 due to the field dB2 produced by element I2 dl2 as
shown

But from Biot–Savart’s law

 This equation is essentially the law of force between two current elements and is analogous to Coulomb’s law, which
expresses the force between two stationary charges.
 we obtain the total force F1 on current loop 1 due to current loop 2

 The force F2 on loop 2 due to the magnetic field B1 from loop 1 is

obtained by interchanging subscripts 1 and 2.
 It can be shown that F2 = -F1; thus F1 and F2 obey Newton’s third law that
action and reaction are equal and opposite.
INDUCTORS AND INDUCTANCES
 A circuit (or closed conducting path) carrying current I produces a magnetic field B that causes a flux ψ=∫B . dS to
pass through each turn of the circuit as shown in Figure.
 If the circuit has N identical turns, we define the flux linkage λ as

λ=Nψ
 Also, if the medium surrounding the circuit is linear, the flux linkage l is proportional to the current I
producing it; that is

 where L is a constant of proportionality called the inductance of the circuit.

 The inductance L is a property of the physical arrangement of the circuit.
 It is the ability of the physical arrangement to store magnetic energy.
 A circuit or part of a circuit that has inductance is called an inductor.
 The inductance L of an inductor is the ratio of the magnetic flux linkage to the current I through the inductor.

 The unit of inductance is the henry (H), which is the same as webers per ampere.
 Since the henry is a fairly large unit, inductances are usually expressed in millihenrys (mH)
 The inductance defined as self-inductance, since the linkages are produced by the inductor itself.
 Like capacitance, inductance may be regarded as a measure of how much magnetic energy is stored in an inductor.
 The magnetic energy (in joules) stored in an inductor is expressed in circuit theory as
MAGNETIC ENERGY

 Just as the potential energy in an electrostatic field was derived as

 simple approach is using the magnetic energy in the field of an inductor

 The energy is stored in the magnetic field B of the inductor.

 We would like to express in terms of B or H.

 Consider a differential volume in a magnetic field as shown

in Figure .
 Let the volume be covered with conducting sheets at the
top and bottom surfaces with current Del I.
 We assume that the whole region is filled with such
differential volumes.
 each volume has an inductance
 The magnetostatic energy density wm (in J/m3 ) is defined as

 Thus the energy in a magnetostatic field in a linear medium is

 stationary charges → electrostatic fields
 steady currents → magnetostatic fields
 time-varying currents → electromagnetic fields (or waves)

FARADAY’S LAW
 According to Faraday’s experiments, a static magnetic field produces no current flow; but in a closed circuit,
a time-varying field produces an induced voltage (called electromotive force or simply emf) that causes a
flow of current.

 Faraday discovered that the induced emf, Vemf in any closed circuit is equal to the time rate of change of
the magnetic flux linkage by the circuit.
DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
 Reconsidered Maxwell’s curl equation for electrostatic fields and modified it for time-varying situations to
satisfy Faraday’s law.
 We shall now reconsider Maxwell’s curl equation for magnetic fields (Ampère’s circuit law) for time-varying
conditions.

For static EM fields, we recall that

---1
 But the divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero

----- 2
The continuity of current is

----- 3
The equations are obviously incompatible for time-varying conditions We must modify to agree with eqn 1&2.
To do this, we add a term to equation-1 so that it becomes

 where Jd is to be determined and defined.

 Again, the divergence of the curl of any vector is zero. Hence:
 This is Maxwell’s equation (based on Ampère’s circuit law) for a time-varying field.
 The term Jd is known as displacement current density and J is the conduction current .
 The insertion of Jd into amps law was one of the major contributions of Maxwell.
 Without the term Jd, the propagation of electromagnetic waves (e.g., radio or TV waves) would be impossible.
 At low frequencies, Jd is usually neglected compared with J.
 However, at radio frequencies, the two terms are comparable. At the time of Maxwell, high-frequency sources were
not available and eq. (9.23) could not be verified experimentally.
Based on the displacement current density, we define the displacement current as
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
 So far, we have considered the existence of the electric field in a homogeneous medium.
 If the field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the conditions that the field must satisfy at the
interface separating the media are called boundary conditions.
 These conditions are helpful in determining the field on one side of the boundary if the field on the other side is
known. Obviously, the conditions will be dictated by the types of material the media are made of.
 We shall consider the boundary conditions at an interface separating

• To determine the boundary conditions, we need to use Maxwell’s equations

 where Qenc is the free charge enclosed by the surface S. Also we need to decompose the electric field intensity
E into two orthogonal components:

• where Et and En are, respectively, the tangential and normal components of E to the interface of interest.
• A similar decomposition can be done for the electric flux density D
Dielectric–Dielectric Boundary Conditions
 Consider the E field existing in a region that consists of two different dielectrics characterized by ε 1 =ε o .ε r1
and ε 2 =ε o .ε r2. The fields E1 and E2 in media 1 and 2, respectively, can be decomposed as

We apply eq. to the closed path abcda of Figure, assuming that the path is very small with respect to the spatial
variation of E. We obtain

 Thus the tangential components of E are the same on the two sides of the boundary. In other words, Et undergoes
no change on the boundary and it is said to be continuous across the boundary. Since D = ƐE , Dt = Dn, eq
 That is, Dt undergoes some change across the interface.
 Hence Dt is said to be discontinuous across the interface.
 Similarly, we apply eq. to the pillbox (cylindrical Gaussian surface) of Figure .
 The contribution due to the sides vanishes. Allowing Dh 0 gives

 where ƿs is the free charge density placed deliberately at the boundary.

 It should be borne in mind that eq. is based on the assumption that D is directed from region 2 to region 1 and eq.
must be applied accordingly.
 If no free charges exist at the interface (i.e., charges are not deliberately placed there), ƿ S = 0 and eq. becomes

• Thus the normal component of D is continuous across the interface; that is, Dn undergoes no change at the
boundary. Since D=εE,
• Showing that the normal component of E is discontinuous at the boundary. Equations or are collectively
referred to as boundary conditions; they must be satisfied by an electric field at the boundary separating two
different dielectrics
• As mentioned earlier, the boundary conditions are usually applied in finding the electric field on one side of the
boundary given the field on the other side.
• Besides this, we can use the boundary conditions to determine the “refraction” of the electric field across the interface.
Consider D1 or E1 and D2 or E2 making angles θ1 and θ 2 with the normal to the interface
Conductor–Dielectric Boundary Conditions
MAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
 We define magnetic boundary conditions as the conditions that H (or B) field must satisfy at the boundary
between two different media

We make use of Gauss’s law for magnetic fields

 Consider the boundary between two magnetic media 1 and 2, characterized, respectively, by m1 and m2 as
in Figure 8.16. Applying eq. (8.38) to the pillbox (Gaussian surface) of Figure 8.16(a) and allowing Dh S 0, we
obtain

 since B =μ H. Equation shows that the normal component of B is continuous at the boundary. It also
shows that the normal component of H is discontinuous at the boundary; H undergoes some change at
the interface. Similarly, we apply eq. (8.39) to the closed path abcda of Figure 8.16(b), where surface
current K on the boundary is assumed normal to the path.
 As Del h 0,

This shows that the tangential component of H is also discontinuous. Equation may be written in terms of B as

where an12 is a unit vector normal to the interface and is directed from medium 1 to medium 2. If the boundary
is free of current or the media are not conductors (for K is free current density), K = 0

Thus the tangential component of H is continuous while that of B is discontinuous at the boundary. If the fields
make an angle θ with the normal to the interface, eq. results in