OPERATING SYSTEM

UNIT-1(INTRODUCTION)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Chapter 1: Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Chapter 1: Introduction
 What Operating Systems Do
 Computer-System Organization
 Computer-System Architecture
 Operating-System Structure
 Operating-System Operations
 Process Management
 Memory Management
 Storage Management
 Protection and Security
 Kernel Data Structures
 Computing Environments
 Open-Source Operating Systems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Why use an OS?

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 OS with other Machines

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 OS with other Machines

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Objectives

 To describe the basic organization of computer

systems
 To provide a grand tour of the major
components of operating systems
 To give an overview of the many types of
computing environments
 To explore several open-source operating
systems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 What is an Operating System?

 A program that acts as an intermediary between a

user of a computer and the computer hardware
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving user
problems easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient
manner

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Operating System Definition

 No universally accepted definition

 “Everything a vendor ships when you order an
operating system” is a good approximation
 But varies wildly
 “The one program running at all times on the
computer” is the kernel.
 Everything else is either
 a system program (ships with the operating
system) , or
 an application program.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Operating System Definition (Cont.)

 OS is a resource allocator
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for
efficient and fair resource use
 OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent
errors and improper use of the computer

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 What Operating System Do?

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 What Operating System Do?

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 What Operating Systems Do

 Depends on the point of view

 Users want convenience, ease of use and good
performance
 Don’t care about resource utilization
 But shared computer such as mainframe or
minicomputer must keep all users happy
 Users of dedicate systems such as workstations
have dedicated resources but frequently use shared
resources from servers
 Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized
for usability and battery life
 Some computers have little or no user interface,
such as embedded computers in devices and
automobiles

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Computer System Structure
 Computer system can be divided into four components:
 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among
various applications and users
 Application programs – define the ways in which
the system resources are used to solve the
computing problems of the users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers,
database systems, video games
 Users
 People, machines, other computers

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Four Components of a Computer System

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Computer System Organization
 Computer-system operation
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect
through common bus providing access to shared
memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices
competing for memory cycles

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Computer System Organization
 A device controller is in charge of a specific type of
device
 System bus provides access to shared memory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Computer-System Operation

 I/O devices and the CPU can execute

concurrently
 Each device controller is in charge of a particular
device type
 Each device controller has a local buffer
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from
local buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished
its operation by causing an interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Operating System as a Resource
Controller

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Computer Startup

 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as
firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

 Once the kernel is loaded and executing, it can start

providing services to the system and it’s users
 Some services are provided outside of the kernel, by
system programs that are loaded into memory at boot
time to become system processes, or system daemons.
 On UNIX, the first system process is “init,” and its starts
many other daemons.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Difference between Program and Process

 A Program is an executable file which contains a certain set of

instructions written to complete the specific job or operation on
your computer.
 A Process is an execution of a specific program. It is an active
entity that actions the purpose of the application.
 A program is a passive entity.
 It stores a group of instructions to be executed.Processes are
allocated system resources like file descriptors and network
ports.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Interrupts

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Interrupt Timeline

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Storage Structure
 Main memory(RAM) – only large storage media that the CPU
can access directly
 Random access
 Typically volatile
 Secondary storage(HARD DISK) – extension of main memory
that provides large nonvolatile storage capacity
 Hard disks is made up of rigid metal or glass platters
covered with magnetic recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are
subdivided into sectors
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction between
the device and the computer
 Solid-state disks(SSD) – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
 Various technologies
 Becoming more popular
 Widely used in mobile phones.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Storage Structure (Non Voilatile)
Magnetic Tape : Sequential Floppy Disk: Sequential
Acess Media Acess Media

Hard Disk: Random access Solid state disk : Random access

but not instantly available and instantly available (Mostly
used in mobiles)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Storage Hierarchy

 Storage systems organized in hierarchy

 Speed
 Cost
 Volatility
 Caching – copying information into faster
storage system; main memory can be viewed
as a cache for secondary storage
 Device Driver for each device controller to
manage I/O
 Provides uniform interface between
controller and kernel

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Storage-Device Hierarchy

Fastest/
costlier

Speed
increas
Cost es
increase
s

Size/capacity
increases
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Operating System Services

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Operating System Functions

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Classification/Types of Operating System

 Batch Operating System

 * Multi-Programmed Operating System

 * Multi user Operating System

 Multi Tasking or Time Sharing Operating System

 Distributed Operating System

 Multiprocessor Operating System

 Real Time Operating System

 Multithreaded Operating System

 Clustered Operating System

 Embedded Operating System Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

1.31
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition
 Batch Operating System

In this operating system, there’s an operator who

receives all the jobs. The operator, therefore,
makes a group of jobs that requires similar
types of resources. We refer to this group of jobs
as a batch. Job includes programs, input data, and
instructions:

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Batch Operating System

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Progrmming Operating System

• The operating system which can run multiple processes on a single

processor is called a multiprogramming operating system.

• In a multiprogramming OS, if one program must wait for an

input/output transfer, the other programmes are ready to use the

CPU. As a result, different jobs may have to split CPU time.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Progrmming Operating System

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Tasking/ Time Sharing Operating
System

Logically, it is an extension of multiprogramming as in multi

programming the user cannot interact properly with the system

but in time-sharing it is possible because in this CPU executes

multiple processes by switching among them and giving the CPU

time to each process and in this time the user can also interact

with the process.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Tasking/ Time Sharing Operating
System

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi User Operating System
A multi-user operating system is an operating system that permits several users to access a single system

running to a single operating system. These systems are frequently quite complex, and they must manage

the tasks that the various users connected to them require. Users will usually sit at terminals or computers

connected to the system via a network and other system machines like printers. A multi-user operating

system varies from a connected single-user operating system in that each user accesses the same

operating system from different machines.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Types of Multi User Operating System
There are various types of multi-user operating systems. Some of them are as follows:
Distributed System
A distributed system is also known as distributed computing. It is a collection of multiple
components distributed over multiple computers that interact, coordinate, and seem like a
single coherent system to the end-user. With the aid of the network, the end-user would be
able to interact with or operate them.
Time-Sliced Systems
It's a system in which each user's job gets a specific amount of CPU time. In other words,
each work is assigned to a specific time period. These time slices look too small to the user's
eyes. An internal component known as the 'Scheduler' decides to run the next job. This
scheduler determines and executes the job that must perform based on the priority cycle.
Multiprocessor System
Multiple processors are used in this system, which helps to improve overall performance. If
one of the processors in this system fails, the other processor is responsible for completing its
assigned task.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Difference Between Multi-Programming and Multi
Tasking/ Time Sharing Operating System
Multiprogramming System Time-Sharing System
Multiprogramming operating system allows Time-Sharing is the logical extension of
executing multiple processes by monitoring multiprogramming. In this time-sharing
their process states and switching between Operating system, many users/processes are
processes. allocated with computer resources in
respective time slots.
The processor and memory underutilization The processor's time is shared with multiple
problem is resolved, and multiple programs users. That's why it is called a time-sharing
run on the CPU. That's why it is called operating system.
multiprogramming.
In multiprogramming, the process can be In this process, two or more users can use a
executed by a single processor. processor in their terminal.
Multiprogramming OS has no fixed time slice. Time-sharing OS has a fixed time slice.
In a multiprogramming OS system, before In a time-sharing OS system, executive power
finishing a task, the executive power is not is taken off before finishing execution.
taken off.
Here the system does not take some time to Here the system works for the same or less
work on different processes. time on each process.
In Multiprogramming OS, the system depends In time-sharing, the OS system depends on
on devices to switch between tasks such as time to switch between different processes.
I/O interrupts.
The system model of a multiprogramming A system model of the time-sharing system is
system is multiple programs. multiple programs and multiple users.
Multiprogramming system maximizes The Time-sharing system maximizes response
response time. time.
Example: Mac OS, Window OS, Example: Windows NT server, Unix, Linux,
microcomputers such as MP/M, XENIX, and Multics, TOPS-10, TOPS-20
ESQview
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Real Time Operating System
A real-time operating
system (RTOS) is an OS
that guarantees real-time
applications a certain
capability within a specified
deadline. RTOSes are
designed for critical
systems and for devices like
microcontrollers that are
timing-specific. RTOS
processing time
requirements are measured
in milliseconds.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Real Time Operating System

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Processor/Multi Processing
Operating System

Multiprocessor operating systems are used in operating systems to boost the

performance of multiple CPUs within a single computer system. Multiple CPUs are
linked together so that a job can be divided and executed more quickly. When a job is
completed, the results from all CPUs are compiled to provide the final output.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Distributed Operating System
A distributed operating system is system software over a collection of independent
software, networked, communicating, and physically separate computational nodes.
They handle jobs which are serviced by multiple CPUs. Each individual node holds a
specific software subset of the global aggregate operating system

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Clustered Operating System
• Clustered operating systems are just the opposite of distributed
operating systems, here all the different machines are connected to
a local network.
• As different machines having their own hardware connected to a
local network it acts as a server or you can say as a
supercomputer.
• The computation power of different machines will be combined,
resulting in a total increase in the power of computation for a
single system.
• So, to manage this environment the operating system used is
known as the Clustered operating system.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Clsutered Operating System

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Embedded Operating System
An embedded operating system is a specialized operating system (OS) designed
to perform a specific task for a device that is not a computer. The main job of an
embedded OS is to run the code that allows the device to do its job. The
embedded OS also makes the device's hardware accessible to software that is
running on top of the OS.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Threading Operating System

What is Thread ?
A thread is a sequential flow of tasks within a process. Each thread
has its own program counter, stack, and set of registers. But the
threads of a single process might share the same code and
data/file. Threads are also termed as lightweight processes as
they share common resources.

Let us take an example of a human body. A human body has

different parts having different functionalities which are working
parallelly ( Eg: Eyes, ears, hands, etc). Similarly in computers, a
single process might have multiple functionalities running parallelly
where each functionality can be considered as a thread.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Threading Operating System

Difference Between Process and Thread

S.N. Process Thread
1 Process is heavy weight or resource Thread is light weight, taking lesser
intensive. resources than a process.
2 Process switching needs interaction Thread switching does not need to
with operating system. interact with operating system.
3 System calls involved in process There is no System Call involved.
4 OS treats different processes All user level threads treated as single
differently task for OS.
5 Different process have different Threads share same copy of code and
copies of data, files and code data.
6 Context switching is slower and Context switching is faster and easy
difficult
7 Blocking a process will not block Blocking a thread in process will block
another process entire process.
8 Processes are Independent Threads are Interdependent as they
share the same memory, code and
data.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Threading Operating System

Thread is implemented at following level

•User Level Threads − User managed threads.

•Kernel Level Threads − Operating System managed threads acting on kernel, an operating
system core.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Threading Operating System
User Level Threads: In this case, the thread management kernel is not
aware of the existence of threads. The thread library contains code for
creating and destroying threads, for passing message and data between
threads, for scheduling thread execution and for saving and restoring
thread contexts. The application starts with a single thread.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.51 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Threading Operating System
Kernel Level Threads: In this case, thread management is done by the Kernel.
There is no thread management code in the application area. Kernel threads are
supported directly by the operating system. Any application can be programmed to
be multithreaded.
The Kernel maintains context information for the process as a whole and for
individuals threads within the process. Scheduling by the Kernel is done on a
thread basis. The Kernel performs thread creation, scheduling and management in
Kernel space. Kernel threads are generally slower to create and manage than the
user threads.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Threading Operating System

Types of Thread

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Threading Operating System
Multi Threading: Multithreading allows many parts of a program to run
simultaneously. These parts are referred to as threads, and they are lightweight
processes that are available within the process. As a result, multithreading
increases CPU utilization through multitasking.

Multi Threading Models: 3-Types

•Many to many relationship.

•Many to one relationship.

•One to one relationship.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Threading Operating System
Many to Many Relationship: Multithreading allows many parts of a program to run
simultaneously. In this model, we have multiple user threads multiplex to same or lesser number of
kernel level threads. Number of kernel level threads are specific to the machine, advantage of this
model is if a user thread is blocked we can schedule others user thread to other kernel thread. Thus,
System doesn’t block if a particular thread is blocked.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Threading Operating System
Many to One Relationship: In this model, we have multiple user threads mapped to one kernel
thread. In this model when a user thread makes a blocking system call entire process blocks. As we
have only one kernel thread and only one user thread can access kernel at a time, so multiple
threads are not able access multiprocessor at the same time. The thread management is done on the
user level so it is more efficient.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Multi Threading Operating System
One to One Relationship: In this model, one to one relationship between kernel and
user thread. In this model multiple thread can run on multiple processor. Problem with
this model is that creating a user thread requires the corresponding kernel thread.
As each user thread is connected to different kernel , if any user thread makes a
blocking system call, the other user threads won’t be blocked

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Structures of Operating System
1. Simple Structure: Such operating systems do not have well defined structure and are
small, simple and limited systems. The interfaces and levels of functionality are not well
separated. MS-DOS is an example of such operating system. In MS-DOS application
programs are able to access the basic I/O routines. These types of operating system cause
the entire system to crash if one of the user programs fails.
Diagram of the structure of MS-DOS is shown below

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Structures of Operating System
1. Simple Structure:

Advantages of Simple structure:

It delivers better application performance because of the few interfaces between the
application program and the hardware.
Easy for kernel developers to develop such an operating system.

Disadvantages of Simple structure:

The structure is very complicated as no clear boundaries exists between modules.
It does not enforce data hiding in the operating system.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Structures of Operating System
2. Mono Lithic Structure:
•Monolithic Kernel is another classification of Kernel.
•It manages system resources between application and hardware, but user
services and kernel services are implemented under the same address space.
•It increases the size of the kernel, thus increasing the size of the operating system as well.
•This kernel provides CPU scheduling, memory management, file management, and other

operating system functions through system calls.

•As both services are implemented under the same address space, this makes operating

system execution faster.

•If any service fails the entire system crashes, and it is one of the drawbacks of this kernel.

The entire operating system needs modification if the user adds a new service.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Structures of Operating System
2. Mono Lithic Structure:

And
system
programs

Hardware

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Structures of Operating System
2. Mono Lithic Structure:

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.62 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Structures of Operating System
2. Mono Lithic Structure:

Advantages
•One of the major advantages of having a monolithic kernel is that it provides
CPU scheduling, memory management, file management, and other operating
system functions through system calls.
•The other one is that it is a single large process running entirely in a single
address space.
•It is a single static binary file. Examples of some Monolithic Kernel-based OSs
are Unix, Linux, Open VMS, XTS-400, z/TPF.

Disadvantages
•One of the major disadvantages of a monolithic kernel is that if anyone service
fails it leads to an entire system failure.
•If the user has to add any new service. The user needs to modify the entire
operating system.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.63 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Structures of Operating System
3. Layered Structure:
•To eliminate the diadvatages of simple structure from MS-DOS and mono lithic
structure from UNIX, Layered structure comes into a picture.
•An OS can be broken into pieces and retain much more control on
system.
•In this structure the OS is broken into number of layers (levels).
•The bottom layer (layer 0) is the hardware and the topmost layer
(layer N) is the user interface.
•These layers are so designed that each layer uses the functions of
the lower level layers only.
•This simplifies the debugging process as if lower level layers are
debugged and an error occurs during debugging then the error must be
on that layer only as the lower level layers have already been
debugged.
•The main disadvantage of this structure is that at each layer, the data
needs to be modified and passed on which adds overhead to the
system. Moreover careful planning of the layers is necessary as a layer
can use only lower level layers. UNIX is an example of this structure

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.64 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Structures of Operating System
3. Layered Structure:

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.65 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Structures of Operating System
3. Layered Structure:

Advantages :
•Layering makes it easier to enhance the operating system as
implementation of a layer can be changed easily without affecting the
other layers.
•It is very easy to perform debugging and system verification.

Disadvantages :
•In this structure the application performance is degraded as compared
to simple structure.
•It requires careful planning for designing the layers as higher layers use
the functionalities of only the lower layers.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.66 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Structures of Operating System
4. Micro Kernel Structure:

•This structure designs the operating system by removing all non-

essential components from the kernel and implementing them as
system and user programs.
•This result in a smaller kernel called the micro-kernel.
•Advantages of this structure are that all new services need to be added
to user space and does not require the kernel to be modified.
•Thus it is more secure and reliable as if a service fails then rest of the
operating system remains untouched. Mac OS is an example of this
type of OS.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.67 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Structures of Operating System
4. Micro Kernel Structure:

System
programs

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.68 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Structures of Operating System
4. Micro Kernel Structure:
Advantages
The advantages of microkernel are as follows −
•This is small and isolated so as better functioning
•These are more secure due to space division
•Can add new features without recompiling
•This architecture is more flexible and can coexist in the system
•Fewer system crashes as compared to monolithic system

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of microkernel are as follows −
•It is expensive as compared to the monolithic system architecture.
•Function calls needed when drivers are implemented as processes.
•Performance of the microkernel system can be indifferent and may sometimes cause problems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.69 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Structures of Operating System
Modular Structure:

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.70 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Structures of Operating System
Difference Between Mono Lithic and Micro Kernel Structure:
Terms Monolithic Kernel microkernel
Definition A monolithic kernel is a type of kernel in A microkernel is a kernel type that provides
operating systems where the entire operating low-level address space management, thread
system works in the kernel space. management, and interprocess
communication to implement an operating
system.
Address space In a monolithic kernel, both user services and In microkernel user services and kernel,
kernel services are kept in the same address services are kept in separate address spaces.
space.

Size The monolithic kernel is larger than the The microkernel is smaller in size.
microkernel.
Execution It has fast execution. It has slow execution.
OS services In a monolithic kernel system, the kernel In a microkernel-based system, the OS
contains the OS services. services and kernel are separated.
Extendible The monolithic kernel is quite complicated to The microkernel is easily extendible.
extend.
Security If a service crashes, then the whole system If a service crashed, it does not affect the
crashes in a monolithic kernel. working of the microkernel.
Customization It is difficult to add new functionalities to the It is easier to add new functionalities to the
monolithic kernel. Therefore, it is not microkernel. Therefore, it is more
customizable. customizable.
Code Less coding is required to write a monolithic A microkernel is required more coding.
kernel.
Example Linux, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD, QNX, Symbian, L4L.inux, Singularity, K42,
Microsoft Windows (95, 98, Me), Solaries, Mac OS X, Integrity, PikeOS, HURD, Minix,
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.71 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Re-entrant Kernel

• As the name suggests, a re-entrant kernel is the one which allows multiple
processes to be executing in the kernel mode at any given point of time and that
too without causing any consistency problems(burden of doing out weight)
among the kernel data structures.
• Well, we know that in a single processor system only one process can execute at
any given instant but there could be other processes blocked in kernel mode
waiting to be executed.
• For example, in a re-entrant kernel a process waiting on a ‘read()’ call may decide
to release CPU to a process which is waiting for execution in kernel mode.
• Now, one might get a question in mind about why a kernel is made re-entrant?
Well, lets start with a example where a kernel is not re-entrant and see what if it
allows multiple processes to execute in kernel mode.

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 Re-entrant Kernel
Lets assume that a process is executing in kernel mode and accessing a kernel data structure
and some global values associated with it.
•Suppose the process name is ‘A’.
•Now ‘A’ accesses a global variable to see if the value is non zero (so that it can do some

calculations etc) and just before it tries to use this value in some of its logic, a context switch to
process ‘B’ happens.
•Now this process ‘B’ tries to access the value of the same global variable and decrements it.
•Another context switch happens and process ‘A’ comes back into execution.
•Since ‘A’ does not know that ‘B’ has already decremented the value, it tries to use this value

again.
•So here is the catch, process ‘A’ sees two different values of the global variable as the value was

changed by another process ‘B’.

So, now we know that why a kernel needs to be re-entrant. Another question that may arise is
how to make a kernel re-entrant?

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 Re-entrant Kernel
On a basic note, following points could be considered for making a kernel re-entrant
:
•Write kernel functions that modify only the local (stack) variables and do not alter

the global variables or data structures. Such type of functions are also known as re-
entrant functions.
•Strictly adhering to the use of only re-entrant functions in a kernel is not a feasible

solution. So another technique used is ‘locking mechanisms’ that ensure that

only one process can use a non re-entrant function at a given time.
From the above points it is clear that use of re-entrant functions and locking
mechanisms for non-re-entrant functions is the core of making a kernel re-entrant.
Since implementing re-entrant functions is more related to good programming, the
locking mechanisms are related with the concept of synchronization.

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 System Call
A system call is a mechanism that provides the interface between a process and the
operating system. It is a programmatic method in which a computer program requests a
service from the kernel of the OS.
System call offers the services of the operating system to the user programs via API
(Application Programming Interface). System calls are the only entry points for the kernel
system.

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