Introduction to

Psychology,
16 Edition
th

Chapter 1: The Foundations of

Psychological Science

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 1
 Icebreaker: How Do We Learn?

The class will be broken up into small groups of students.

1. What is your current understanding and ideas about the field of psychology?
2. From where did those perceptions come? How accurate do you think they
are?
3. Can you identify different types of psychologists and their typical activities?

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 Chapter Objectives (1 of 6)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1.1.1 Explain why people fail to recognize that “commonsense” beliefs are often
false.
1.1.2 Distinguish between superstition, pseudoscience, and science.
1.2.1 Name some of the areas in which psychological scientists do research.
1.2.2 Describe the work carried out by clinical and counseling psychologists.
1.3.1 Explain the method that Wundt and Titchener used to study conscious
experience and the limitations of this method.

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 Chapter Objectives (2 of 6)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1.3.2 Contrast Titchener’s structuralist approach to psychology with
(a) the Gestalt approach developed by Wertheimer

(b) the functionalist approach developed by James

(c) the behaviorist approach developed by Watson and Skinner

(d) the psychoanalytic approach developed by Freud

(e) the cognitive approach

(f) the humanists’ approach developed by Maslow and Rogers

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 Chapter Objectives (3 of 6)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1.4.1 Explain the three perspectives that comprise the biopsychosocial model.
1.4.2 Explain the advantages of the biopsychosocial model for explaining
complex behavior.
1.4.3 Explain why early psychological research was prone to gender and culture
bias.
1.5.1 Explain the goals of contemporary psychology.
1.5.2 Define critical thinking, and identify the five principles of critical thinking.

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 Chapter Objectives (4 of 6)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1.5.3 Outline the six steps of the scientific method.
1.5.4 Describe three types of data gathered by psychological scientists,
including the challenges faced by psychologists who use them.
1.6.1 Differentiate between independent, dependent, and extraneous variables
in an experiment.
1.6.2 Explain how experiments allow psychological scientists to make
statements about cause and effect.

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 Chapter Objectives (5 of 6)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1.6.3 Outline how psychological scientists evaluate the results of an
experiment.
1.6.4 Describe two problems associated with experiments, and how they can
be controlled.
1.7.1 Differentiate between quasi-experiments and true experiments.
1.7.2 Explain what is meant by correlational research, and how the degree of
association between two variables is assessed in correlational research.

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 Chapter Objectives (6 of 6)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1.7.3 Describe the conditions under which case studies are useful.
1.8.1 Name six ways that people can critically evaluate information found in the
popular press and on social media
1.8.2 Create a plan to analyze and evaluate information that you are exposed
to in the popular press and on social media.

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 Unit 1
Commonsense Psychology: Not Necessarily
“Common” or “Sense”

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 Commonsense Psychology Beliefs

Commonsense beliefs about humans are often false.

Uncritical acceptance: Failing to evaluate claims using sufficient logic

• Tendency to accept beliefs as true for illogical reasons

Confirmation bias: Noticing that which confirms our expectations

• Often occurs unconsciously
• Deliberate selection of evidence to support beliefs
• May also involve active avoidance/disregard of that which contradicts our
expectations
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 Science, Pseudoscience, and Superstition

Superstition: Belief lacking in objective evidence

Pseudoscience: False science

• Astrology
• Phrenology
• Graphology

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 Discussion Activity 1

If pseudosciences are false sciences, why are they so popular?

Look up horoscopes for various astrological signs for yesterday. Were they
accurate? Totally off base?
Many of us read our horoscopes. Why is this considered a false science? Why do
many find horoscopes to be accurate?

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 Unit 2
What Psychologists Do

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 The Field of Psychology

Psychologists: Highly trained in methods, knowledge, and theories of

psychological research
• Usually, master’s degree or doctorate
• Requires several years postgraduate training
• Teach and do research
• Consulting or therapy
• Research in nonacademic settings

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 Psychological Research

Basic Research Applied Research Animal Model

• Seeking knowledge • Solving immediate • A small percentage

for the sake of practical problems of psychological
knowledge • For example, how studies
• For example, how to improve athletic • Principles apply to
memory works performance humans
• For example,
stress, learning,
obesity, sleep

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 Helping People
Type of Mental Health Professional Typical Activities
Clinical psychologist Treats psychological problems; research
on therapies and mental disorders
Counseling psychologist Treats milder problems such as trouble at
work or school
Psychiatrist Medical doctor, treats serious mental
disorders, often with drugs
Psychoanalyst Psychiatrist or psychologist who uses a
very specific approach to psychotherapy
Counselor Advises, offers practical helping skills to
solve problems with marriage, career,
school, and so on

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 Knowledge Check Activity 1

Match the research areas with the topics they cover

1. Developmental a. Conditioning, memory

2. Learning b. Attitudes, groups, leadership
3. Personality c. Processing sensory information
4. Sensation and perception d. Individual difference, motivation
5. Social psychology e. Child psychology

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 Knowledge Check Activity 1: Answer

1. Developmental → e. Child psychology

2. Learning → a. Conditioning, memory
3. Personality → d. Individual differences, motivation
4. Sensation and perception → c. Processing sensory information
5. Social psychology → b. Attitudes, groups, leadership

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 Unit 3
The History of Psychological Science:
A Trip Through Time

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 A Review of Psychological Science

William Wundt:
• Considered father of psychology
• Relied on scientific observation
• Sought to train introspectionists to be
systematic and scientific as they looked
inward to report reactions to various stimuli
• Studied vision, hearing, taste, touch,
memory, time perception, and other topics

William Wundt

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 Introspection and Structuralism

Wundt observed and measured stimuli

• Stimulus: Physical energy that affects a person and evokes a response
• Introspection: Personal observation of mental events; thoughts, feelings, and
sensations

Edward Titchener: Brought introspection ideas to the United States, naming them
structuralism.
• Structuralism: Study of sensation and personal experience as a basic
element

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 The Shortcomings of Introspection

• Imageless thought: Lack of a

conscious image to form though
• Introspection fails to produce
reliable observations of the mind
• Serial positioning: Confirms much
thinking takes place in the cognitive
unconscious

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 Gestalt Psychology (1 of 2)

• Max Wertheimer was first to advance

the Gestalt viewpoint
• Gestalt psychology studied
experiences of thinking, learning,
personality, and perception as whole
units, not by parts (structuralist)

Max Wertheimer
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 Gestalt Psychology (2 of 2)

• According to Gestalt
psychologist, perceptions have a
powerful tendency to form
meaningful patterns

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 Functionalism

William James
• Functionalism: Considers behavior in terms of
active adaptations
• Consciousness is ever-changing stream of
images and sensations
• Includes Darwin’s principle of natural selection
• Brought the study of animals into psychology
and promoted educational work

William James

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 Discussion Activity 2

William James encouraged the use of introspection and self-reporting.

1. What are the potential flaws with self-report data in scientific inquiry?
2. What might a researcher do to correct for or minimize those potential flaws?

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 Behaviorism

John Watson
• Behaviorism: Emphasizes study of
observable actions over the study of the
mind
• Observed relationships between stimuli and
animal’s response
• Adopted Pavlov's concept of conditioning to
explain most behavior
• Believed conditioning could change people’s
actions John B. Watson

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 Radical Behaviorism

B. F. Skinner
• Believed actions are controlled by rewards and
punishments
• Rejected both introspection and the concept of
mind as inappropriate subject matter for
scientific psychology
• Felt behavior best explained without mental
events such as thinking

B. F. Skinner
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 Psychoanalytic Psychology

Sigmund Freud
• Mental life is like an iceberg, with only a
small part exposed
• Dynamic unconscious: Area of the
mind outside of personal awareness
• Behavior deeply influenced by
unconscious thoughts, impulses, and
desires, especially sex and aggression

Sigmund Freud

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 Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology: Study of information processing, thinking, reasoning, and

problem solving
• Open to studying mental events
• Relies on objective observation rather than introspection

Operational definition: Defines a scientific concept by stating specific actions or

procedures used to measure it

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 Humanistic Psychology

Abraham Maslow
• Free will: Ability to make conscious
choices
• Humanistic psychology: People are
inherently good and have potential
• Self-actualization: Fully developing
personal potential

Abraham Maslow
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 Knowledge Check Activity 2

Match the psychological approach with the historical figure

1. Structuralism a. Maslow
2. Humanistic b. Freud
3. Functionalism c. Titchener
4. Psychoanalytic d. Wertheimer
5. Radical behaviorism e. James
6. Gestalt f. Watson
7. Behaviorism g. Skinner

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 Knowledge Check Activity 2: Answer

1. Structuralism → c. Titchener
2. Humanistic → a. Maslow
3. Functionalism → e. James
4. Psychoanalytic → b. Freud
5. Radical behaviorism → g. Skinner
6. Gestalt → d. Wertheimer
7. Behaviorism → f. Watson

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 Unit 4
Contemporary Psychological Science and
the Biopsychosocial Model

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 The Biopsychosocial Model

Biological Psychological Social

• Genetics, brain • Behavior is result of • Impact of social

processes, and processes within context, crowds,
evolution each person groups, and cultures
• Inherited, adaptive • Scientific on human behavior
aspects of behavior observation, • Effect of education,
and mental research, and ethnicity, religion,
processes objectivity and poverty on
• Neuroscience • Mental processes social norms

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 Human Diversity and
the Biopsychosocial Model
Gender bias in research:
• Most researchers were men
• Most research focused on male participants
• Did not account for male–female differences
• Focus on WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic
societies)

Cultural relativity: Behavior must be judged relative to values of the culture in

which it occurs.

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 Discussion Activity 3: Pair-Share

In groups of two or three, discuss the following:

1. Do you agree with the concept of cultural relativity? Why or why not?
2. Based on the idea of cultural relativity, how does a culturally diverse society
determine right or wrong, fair or unjust, or other social concerns?

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 Unit 5
Core Features of Psychological Science

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 Psychology’s Goals (1 of 2)

Four goals of psychology:

1. Description: Naming or classifying

2. Understanding: Stating cause of behavior
3. Prediction: Ability to accurately forecast behavior
4. Control: Ability to alter conditions

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 Psychology’s Goals (2 of 2)

Four goals of psychology come down to asking:

1. What is the nature of this behavior? What does it look like? (description)
2. Why does this behavior occur? (understanding)
3. Can we forecast when the behavior will occur? (prediction)
4. What conditions affect the behavior? Should we use our knowledge of
those conditions to change it? (control)

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 Thinking Critically to Meet
Psychology’s Goals (1 of 2)
Critical thinking: A type of reflection that asks whether a belief can be supported
by both scientific theory and observation
• Few truths transcend need for logical analysis and empirical testing
• Authority or claimed expertise does not make an idea true or false

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 Thinking Critically to Meet
Psychology’s Goals (2 of 2)
• Judging the quality of evidence is crucial.
• Critical thinking requires an open mind.
• Critical thinkers often wonder what it would take to show that a “truth” is false.

Falsification: Attempt to show how commonsense belief or theory might be false

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Using the Scientific Method to Meet
Psychology’s Goals (1 of 2)

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 Using the Scientific Method to Meet
Psychology’s Goals (2 of 2)
• Hypothesis: Predicted outcome
of an experiment
• Theory: Ideas designed to
interrelate concepts that
summarize existing data and
predicts future observations
• Operational definition: Links
concepts with concrete
observations

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 Studying the Science: The Importance of
Replicating Scientific Results
Must report on data in an ethical manner
• Can create challenges when attempting to replicate findings

Lack of replication may be caused by:

• Lack of exact methods observed
• Passage of time

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 Evidence to Address Psychology’s Goals:
From Tests to Testosterone
Self-report data: Most common form of data used
• Survey: Each participant asked the same questions
• Population: Group from which a sample is drawn
• Sample: A subset of a population being studied
• Representative sample: Accurately reflects a larger population
• Biased sample: Does not accurately reflect the population from which it was
drawn

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 Observational Data

Naturalistic observation: Takes place in a natural environment without

interference from researcher

Structured observation: Each participant put in the same position, and

behavior is observed

Observer effect: Changes in behavior caused by awareness of being observed

Observer bias: Observer sees what they expect to see or record only select
details
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 Physiological Data

• Typically quantitative
• Gather using tools that map brain activity
• Minimize concerns about social desirability and observer bias
• Disadvantages: Costly, requires specialized equipment

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 Discussion Activity 4

As a class, identify and discuss some questions to ask yourselves as you

evaluate new information.

How do these questions support a theory or have the potential to create

falsification?

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 Unit 6
Experimental Research:
Where Cause Meets Effect

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 Experimental Variables

Independent Dependent Extraneous

• Suspected cause • Measure any effect • Condition or factor

for differences in of manipulating the that researcher
behavior independent variable wants to prevent
• Can be • Measured to see if from affecting the
manipulated by affected by outcome
researcher manipulation • Controlled to
ensure dependent
variable is not
affected
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 Experimental Groups and Random
Assignment (1 of 2)
• Experimental subjects: Participants
whose behavior is investigated

• Experimental group: Group that

receives treatment the study is
testing

• Control group: Subjects who do not

receive treatment

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 Experimental Groups and Random
Assignment (2 of 2)
Random assignment: Subjects placed in experimental or control groups by
chance

• Defining feature of a true experiment

• Essential to the ability to make cause-and-effect claims

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 Evaluating Experimental Results

Statistically significant results: Results would rarely occur by chance alone

Meta-analysis: Used to combine results of many studies as if they were all part
of one big study
• Allows researchers to see big picture and draw conclusions that might be
missed in a single, small-scale study

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 Potential Problems with Experiments

Research participant bias: Change in person’s behavior caused by influence of

expectations

Placebo effect: Change in behavior due to expectations that a treatment will do

something
• Placebo: An inactive substance that should not have a chemical effect

Single-blind study: Everyone gets a treatment that looks the same; only
difference is the independent variable (real drug or placebo)

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 Researcher Bias

Researcher bias: Change in behavior caused by influence of researcher; finding

what they expect to find

Self-fulfilling prophecy: A prediction that prompts people to act in ways that

make predictions come true

Double-blind study: Research conducted so that neither the researcher nor the
subjects know who received treatment or placebo

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 Discussion Activity 5: Pair-Share

Break the class into groups of two or three.

• Identify and develop the four steps you would follow to perform an
experiment.

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 Unit 7
Nonexperimental Research: Losing (a Bit of)
Control

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 Nonexperimental Research

Quasi-Experiments Correlational Research

• Descriptive study where • Descriptive study that quantifies the

researchers wish to compare degree to which events, measures,
groups of people but cannot or variables are associated
randomly assign them to groups • At the heart of most “big data”
• Random assignment is the defining gathered by companies
feature of a true experiment

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Understanding Associations Using
Correlation Coefficients

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 Correlation and Causation

• Correlation does not demonstrate

causation.
• To test cause-and-effect
relationship, perform a controlled
experiment.

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 Case Studies

• An in-depth analysis of behavior of one person or small number of people

• Used to study unusual accidents or other natural events

• Useful for investigating mental disorders such as depression or psychosis

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 Knowledge Check Activity 3

Which type of psychological research method should an investigator use if they

are testing a prediction in a lab, clinic or natural setting?
1. Experimental method
2. Quasi-experimental method
3. Correlational method
4. Clinical method

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 Knowledge Check Activity 3: Answer

Which type of psychological research method should an investigator use if they

are testing a prediction in a lab, clinic or natural setting?

c. Correlational method
Correlational methods demonstrates the existence of relationships; allows
prediction; can be used in a lab, clinic, or natural setting.
Little or no control is possible; cause-and-effect relationships cannot be
confirmed; relationships may be coincidental.

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 Unit 8
Psychology and Your Skill Set:
Information Literacy

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 Separating Fact from Fiction in the Media

1. Consider the source of information

2. Beware of claims based on poor or carefully selected evidence
3. Always consider alternative explanations and remember that some things do
not happen by chance
4. Ask yourself if there was a control group
5. Look for errors between correlation and causation
6. Beware of oversimplification, especially when motivated by monetary gain

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 Discussion Activity: Optimist/Pessimist

Move into groups of two and consider the following:

The weight loss industry is a multibillion dollar industry in the United States, yet
many of us are still overweight. Think about some of the weight loss ads you have
seen.
The optimist in the group should use the five steps in separating fact from fiction
and identify reasons why a weight loss product could be effective for the right
person.
The pessimist in the group should use the five steps in separating fact from fiction
and identify reasons why weight loss products don’t work.

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 67
 Self-Assessment

Can you distinguish between superstition, pseudoscience, and science?

Describe the work carried out by clinical and counseling psychologists.
Differentiate between approaches to psychology, including introspection, Gestalt,
structuralism, behavioral, and function approaches.
Name the three perspectives of the biopsychosocial model and the advantages
and disadvantages of this perspective.

Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 68
 Summary (1 of 6)

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
• Explain why people fail to recognize that “commonsense” beliefs are often false.
• Distinguish between superstition, pseudoscience, and science.
• Name some of the areas in which psychological scientists do research.
• Describe the work carried out by clinical and counseling psychologists.
• Explain the method that Wundt and Titchener used to study conscious
experience and the limitations of this method.

Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 69
 Summary (2 of 6)

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
• Contrast Titchener’s structuralist approach to psychology with

(a) the Gestalt approach developed by Wertheimer

(b) the functionalist approach developed by James

(c) the behaviorist approach developed by Watson and Skinner

(d) the psychoanalytic approach developed by Freud

(e) the cognitive approach

(f) the humanists’ approach developed by Maslow and Rogers

Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 70
 Summary (3 of 6)

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
• Explain the three perspectives that comprise the biopsychosocial model.
• Explain the advantages of the biopsychosocial model for explaining complex
behavior.
• Explain why early psychological research was prone to gender and culture bias.
• Explain the goals of contemporary psychology.
• Define critical thinking, and identify the five principles of critical thinking.

Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 71
 Summary (4 of 6)

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
• Outline the six steps of the scientific method.
• Describe three types of data gathered by psychological scientists, including the
challenges faced by psychologists who use them.
• Differentiate between independent, dependent, and extraneous variables in an
experiment.
• Explain how experiments allow psychological scientists to make statements
about cause and effect.

Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 72
 Summary (5 of 6)

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
• Outline how psychological scientists evaluate the results of an experiment.
• Describe two problems associated with experiments, and how they can be
controlled.
• Differentiate between quasi-experiments and true experiments.
• Explain what is meant by correlational research, and how the degree of
association between two variables is assessed in correlational research.
• Describe the conditions under which case studies are useful.

Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 73
 Summary (6 of 6)

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
• Name six ways that people can critically evaluate information found in the
popular press and on social media
• Create a plan to analyze and evaluate information that you are exposed to in the
popular press and on social media.

Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 74